Title: A Cultural, Linguistic, and Ecological Framework for Response to Intervention
1A Cultural, Linguistic, and Ecological Framework
for Response to Intervention
Julie Esparza Brown Portland State
University jebrown_at_pdx.edu Historian, Oregon
Association of Latino Administrators
2General Features of RTI
- High quality classroom instruction
- Research-based instruction
- Classroom staff design and complete student
assessments and are actively involved in
curriculum planning - Universal screening of academics and behavior
- Continuous progress monitoring
- Research-based interventions
- Progress monitoring during interventions
- Fidelity measures
3General Attributes of RTI
- The concept of multiple tiers of increasingly
intense student interventions - Implementation of a differentiated curriculum
with the option of different curriculum at second
and third tiers - Interventions can be delivered by staff other
than classroom teacher (although classroom
teachers maintain ultimate responsibility) - Varied duration, frequency and time of
interventions - Categorical or noncategorical placement decisions
at highest tier
4Problems
- Where is the scientifically-based instruction for
ELLs in either L1 or L2 literacy? - Vaughn, Mathes, Linan-Thompson Francis (2005)
say At the current time, it is very difficult
to actually implement this model with ELLs
because efficacy of various interventions has not
been tested with this population. - The main problem with RTI and ELLs is the same as
that with standardized assessment what is the
appropriate standard, expectation for growth or
baseline to use?
5IDEA Mandates Equity in Evaluation
- IDEA states that assessment materials
- (a) should not be racially or culturally biased,
and - (b) should be provided in the childs native
language when feasible (20 U.S.C. 1412 (6)(B)).
- IDEA also mandates that states have policies and
procedures in place to prevent disproportionality
of diverse students in special education (20
U.S.C. 1412 (24)).
6RTI Universal Screening for All Including ELL
Students
- Screenings should occur for all ELL students in
the following areas - Phonemic Awareness, letter knowledge, concepts of
print - The alphabetic code phonics and decoding
- Fluency and automaticity
- Vocabulary
- Comprehension
- Screening should also occur for
- First and second oral proficiency
- Existing knowledge base for content
7The Intervention Paradigm - Pros
- There is an increased emphasis on curriculum
based assessment and alternative local
assessments. - Progress monitoring and universal screening for
all. - Students can be compared to peers in their local
cohort rather than to national norms. - There are increased opportunities for
collaboration and consultation with other site
support personnel.
8The Intervention Paradigm - Cons
- There is no mechanism for determining a disorder
in the basic psychological processes (which
remains part of the federal definition for LD). - It may be difficult to determine if a childs
ecology or intrinsic learning problem is the
primary cause of academic challenges. - Once all interventions have been exhausted and a
students progress has been minimal, there is
little guidance as to next steps. Evaluation of
a childs cognitive abilities (not learning
styles) may aide in determining why the previous
interventions may not have been successful and
what might be done to improve the interventions
for this particular child.
9The Traditional Assessment Approach
- The traditional assessment approach has been
criticized for - Emphasizing eligibility rather than linking to
intervention - Using a discrepancy approach in learning
disability determinations that does not
necessarily highlight a disorder in one or more
of the basic psychological processes - To circumvent the problems with the traditional
approach, the RTI model has been outlined in IDEA
2004 as an alternative. - The main idea of RTI is that students should
receive interventions as early as possible and in
the general classroom setting before being
referred for a special education evaluation.
10However
- Vellutino (2006) says appropriate psychometric
tests may also be useful in cross-validating
initial impressions based on response to
intervention. - Over time, cognitive ability tests have moved
away from g and there are now well-normed,
well-validated, theory-based tests of cognitive
processes that measure multiple and complex
processes or abilities (cited in Kavale,
Holdnack Mostert, 2005). - In other words, standardized cognitive tests can
be used in the RTI paradigm to identify
processing profiles and NOT to provide a useless
IQ or global score.
11Needed New Framework
- In current RTI models, little focus has been on
the role of standardized assessment, and there
has been no discussion of the role of
standardized assessments for ELL students. - Some suggest that assessments must be part of the
RTI process because the results can guide the
design of appropriate interventions for an
individuals unique needs (Braden Kratochwill,
1997 Hale Fiorello, 2001). - It is virtually impossible to make a valid
diagnosis or an individualized intervention
program without test data gleaned from a
comprehensive evaluation that elucidates
individual strengths and weaknesses (Kavale,
Holdnack Mostert, 2005, p. 9).
12A Framework for RTI for ELLs
- Tier I
- Baseline data gathered at least three times per
year for all students - General education instruction is appropriate and
effective for culturally and linguistically
diverse students - If an ELL student is having academic
difficulties, instruction is modified to match
their level of language proficiency or possibly
delivered in their native language (L1) - Native language literacy instruction may be
especially helpful to students whose L1 has a
transparent, or consistent, orthography such as
Spanish or Italian - The intervention process at this level may be
similar to the Pre-referral or Student Study Team
process.
13A Framework for RTI for ELLs
- Tier I
- Extensive data should be collected to explore all
possible reasons for students learning
difficulty - Parents should be interviewed for information on
childs major milestones and progress - Interventions should be planned that target
explicit skills and be implemented for a
reasonable period of time (eight weeks) - Baseline and post-intervention data should be
gathered on the targeted skills
14A Framework for RTI for ELLs
- Tier I
- Tier I interventions should be based on
research-based best practices for ELL students - For reading, recommendations from the Report of
the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority
Children and Youth (August Shanahan, 2006)
could be used.
15Report of National Literacy Panel for ELLs
- The panel states that five components should be
explicitly taught - Phonemic awareness
- The alphabetic code
- Fluency
- Vocabulary
- Comprehension
16However
- There are two additional components that must be
addressed - Explicit oral language development (preferably in
L1 as well as English (L2) - Whether the students has the background knowledge
in the instructional content
17Phonemic Awareness, Letter Knowledge and Concepts
of Print
- Some children must learn a new alphabetic system
- Some children may need to learn to read from left
to right - Phonemic awareness is a transferable skill and
can be taught in either L1 or L2 - Phonological tasks with unknown words are very
difficult
18The Alphabetic Code Phonics and Decoding
- Begin with pattern and predictable books and then
move to decodable books - Include a focus on comprehension
- For beginning ELL readers, wordless picture books
are useful - Systematic phonics should be linked to spelling
- If a student is literate in their first language
they can be fast-tracked to decoding in English
(with continued emphasis on comprehension) - For ELL students in K-3 provide explicit
instruction to develop English vocabulary and
oral language - When students encounter unknown words, give them
the word since they may have difficulty decoding
unfamiliar words by context clues - For students with interrupted education who enter
our system in grades 4-12, fast-track to English
decoding (and target comprehension)
19Fluent, Automatic Reading of Text
- Provide repeated opportunities for students to
read aloud familiar passages - Provide read-along stories on tape
- For grades K-3 provide cross-age tutors for
repeated readings - For students with interrupted education who enter
the system in grades 4 12, fast-track building
fluency skills
20Vocabulary
- Teach different tiers of vocabulary (Beck, 2002)
- Provide explicit instruction in analyzing words
to detect meaning - Practice words in meaningful context
21Making Vocabulary and Concepts Comprehensible
Boyd-Batstone, P. (2006). Differentiated early
literacy for English language learners
Practical strategies. Boston Allyn Bacon.
22Vocabulary Development
- Nouns Realia and visuals
- Verbs meaningful actions with Total Physical
Response (TPR) - Adjectives Graphic organizes and continuums
Boyd-Batstone, P. (2006). Differentiated early
literacy for English language learners
Practical strategies. Boston Allyn Bacon.
23Text Comprehension
- Books must be a close match to students level of
language proficiency - Do not ask an ELL student to read aloud to assess
their reading comprehension - They need to read for meaning, not to become
word callers - Reading aloud may make ELL students
self-conscious and send the wrong message so that
fluency seems more important than comprehension
24Oral Language Proficiency
- ELL children need language rich environments
- Reading in any language is dependent upon a
childs oral language abilities in that language - Children cannot comprehend what they are reading
in a language they cannot speak and understand. - Readers must be familiar with a minimum of 95 of
the vocabulary in a text to comprehend.
25Background Knowledge and Motivation
- Students from diverse backgrounds may not have
had the same experiences as mainstream peers - U.S. curriculum is built on U.S. cultural norms
and values which may be different from those of
ELL children - Students must e immersed in opportunities to gain
the needed background knowledge through real
opportunities and using real materials - All students are motivated to learn when they see
themselves in the curriculum and are taught that
the language and culture they bring to school is
valued.
26Tier II
- Different interventions than those in Tier I can
be provided here - Instruction is most likely in a small group and
can be in the general ed room or another setting - Instruction may be provided by another specialist
(Title I teacher, reading specialist, speech and
language therapist, etc.) - Instruction should be supplemental to that in
general ed - Instruction MUST continue to be both
linguistically and culturally appropriate - Performance data continues to be collected and
monitored - A student who makes good progress may cycle back
to Tier I - A student who continues to have difficulties may
move to Tier III
27Tier III
- Intensive and individual interventions may begin
- Students progress is again carefully monitored
- It may be appropriate to refer a student who has
not responded or who has had limited response to
Tier I and II interventions for special education
assessment.
28Tier III
- The type of assessment that is appropriate here
continues to be controversial. - Some believe that students should be officially
admitted to special education at this Tier since
they have not responded well to previous
interventions - Others feel that a comprehensive evaluation
should occur - A comprehensive evaluation could include
standardized assessment information (but not
necessarily IQ scores)
29Modern Intelligence Theory
- The Carroll-Horn-Cattell (CHC) theory of
cognitive abilities is supported by a large
network of validity evidence, which includes more
than half a century of factor analytic,
developmental, heritability, external outcome
validity, and neurocognitive research evidence
(Floyd, Evans, McGrew, 2003).
30Flanagan, D.P. Ortiz, S.O. (2001). Essentials
of cross-battery assessment. New York Wiley
Sons.
31CHC Theory as a Problem Solving Model
- CHC Theory is a combination of the theories of
three researchers - Cattell
- Horn (his work was an extension of Cattells
original Gf-Gc formulation) - Carroll
- McGrew (2004) states CHC Theory of
Intelligence is the tent that houses the two most
prominent psychometric theoretical models of
human cognitive abilities. - This model serves as the theoretical foundation
for some of the latest cognitive assessment
(WJ-III, Stanford Binet V, KABC-II, WISC IV/WAIS
IV/WPPSI, and the upcoming DAS II) instruments
and is gaining acceptance by assessment
specialists (Fiorello Primerano, 2005).
32Why Use CHC As Part of the Problem Solving Model?
- It is an empirically-based.
- Research shows that cognitive constructs are
related to certain academic difficulties. - It allows for identification of a processing
disorder in one of more of the psychological
processes. - Assessment can be directly linked to
intervention. - Using CHC Theory and a cross-battery approach
allows practitioners to use the Cultural and
Linguistic Test Classifications (C-LTC) and
Culture-Language Interpretive Matrix (C-LIM)
(Ortiz Flanagan, 1998 Ortiz, 2001 Flanagan
Ortiz, 2001 Ortiz Ochoa, 2005 Ortiz Dynda,
2005 Rhodes, Ochoa Ortiz, 2005) for
interpreting the test scores of ELL students in
the most fair and defensible way.
33What ALL Teachers Need to Know
34Why Do Some Children Have Difficulty Learning to
Read?
- Vellutino (2006) says there are two broad (but
not mutually exclusive) possibilities - Basic cognitive deficits inherent limitations
in reading related cognitive abilities that make
it difficult for a child to acquire foundational
reading skills. - Experiential/Instructional deficits
deficiencies in the childs emergent literacy
skills and/or early literacy instruction. - I say there is one more possibility
- Being culturally and linguistically diverse in a
system that does not adequately accommodate these
differences and build on the strengths these
children bring with them.
35Questions
- Compton (2004) asks if low verbal ability, often
a source of poor reading comprehension skill, is
a defendable category of LD, particularly if the
student is ELL?
36Questions
- If the federal definition of learning disability
still includes a disorder in one or more of the
basic psychological processes, how will these
deficits be identified in the RTI model?
37English Sounds that Do Not Exist in Spanish
- Twenty-seven consonants and consonant blends are
the same in English and Spanish. However, there
are many letters and combinations that are
pronounced differently or that do not exist in
Spanish. - There sounds do not exist
- Initial consonants of g, h, j, r, v, z
- Digraphs of ch, dg, sh, th, wh
38English Sounds that Do Not Exist in Spanish
- Letter combinations -ck, -ght, -nd, -ng, -nt,
sc-, sch-, scr-, sk-, sl-, sm-, sn-, sp-, spl-,
spr-, sq-, st-, str-, sw-, -tch, thr-, tw- - Short vowel sounds /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/
- Long vowel sounds /a/ represented as a-e, ai, ay,
ei /e/ represented as ea, ee, ie, y /i/
represented as I, i-e, ight, -ind, y /o/
represented by o-e, oe, ow, oa, o /u/
represented by u-e, u
39English Sounds that Do Not Exist in Spanish
- Diphthongs au, aw, ew, oi, ou, ow, oy, ue
- R-controlled vowels /ar/, /er/, /ir/, /or/, /ur/
- Schwa a as in again, a as in second a in camera
and around, e as in stolen, e as in the second e
in obedience, o as in dragon, u as in circus, and
u as in suspect - Silent letters gn-, kn-, -mb, wr-
40Phonemes Commonly Mispronounced in English by
Spanish-speaking Students
- /st/ for /est/
- Phonetic error addition
- Phonological strategy linguistic transference.
This transfer occurs in initial word positions
because the syllabic consonant-vowel structure of
the Spanish language means that no words starts
with two consonants (besides clusters present in
the language). - /sh/ for /ch/
- Phonetic error change in the mode of
articulation (a fricative for an affricate) - Phonological strategy linguistic transference.
This transfer occurs because the sound /sh/ does
not exist in Spanish, and it is substituted for
the most similar one in Spanish both phonemes
are voiceless linguopalatals in terms of place of
articulation. - /b/ for /v/
- Phonetic error change in place and manner of
articulation (a fricative is converted into an
occlusive) - Phonological strategy linguistic transference.
This transfer occurs because the sound /v/ is
pronounced in Spanish as /b/.
41Phonemes Commonly Mispronounced in English by
Spanish-speaking Students
- /f/ or /s/ for /th/
- Phonetic error change in the place and manner of
articulation (to a labiodental for /f/ and to a
linguoalvelar for /s/) - Phonological strategy linguistic transference.
This transfer occurs because the /th/ does not
exist in Spanish and is substituted for phonemes
that have the same manner of articulation and
voice. - /d/ for /b/ and /t/ for /th/
- Phonetic error change in place and manner of
articulation ( a voiceless occlusive for a
voiceless fricative) - Phonological strategy linguistic transference.
This transfer occurs because the phoneme /th/
does not exist in Spanish, and the /d/ and /t/
phonemes are pronounced with different points and
manners of articulation in Spanish than in
English.
42Phonemes Commonly Mispronounced in English by
Spanish-speaking Students
- /ch/ for /dz/
- Phonetic error change in a voice (a voiceless
for a voiced phoneme) - Phonological strategy linguistic transference.
This transfer occurs because the sound /dz/ does
not exist in Spanish. - /n/ for /ing/
- Phonetic error change in place of articulation
(a voiced linguoalveolar for a voiced
linguopalatal) - Phonological strategy linguistic transference.
This transfer occurs because the phoneme /ing/
does not exist in Spanish.
43Phonemes Commonly Mispronounced in English by
Spanish-speaking Students
- /ch/ for /th/
- Phonetic error change in mode of articulation (a
voiceless affricate for a voiceless fricative) - Phonological strategy linguistic transfer. This
transfer occurs because the phoneme /th/ does not
exist in Spanish. - /ks/ for /rks/, /f/ for /lf/, /n/ for /nd/, /n/
for /nt/, and /s/ for /st/ - Phonetic error reductions of consonant clusters
in final position - Phonological strategy avoidance. This occurs
because the /ks/, /rks/, /lf/, /nt/, and /st/
phonemes do not exist in Spanish, due to its
consonant-vowel syllabic structure.
44Phonemes Commonly Mispronounced in English by
Spanish-speaking Students
- /ch/ for /th/
- Phonetic error change in mode of articulation (a
voiceless affricate for a voiceless fricative) - Phonological strategy linguistic transfer. This
transfer occurs because the phoneme /th/ does not
exist in Spanish. - /ks/ for /rks/, /f/ for /lf/, /n/ for /nd/, /n/
for /nt/, and /s/ for /st/ - Phonetic error reductions of consonant clusters
in final position - Phonological strategy avoidance. This occurs
because the /ks/, /rks/, /lf/, /nt/, and /st/
phonemes do not exist in Spanish, due to its
consonant-vowel syllabic structure.
45Phonemic Awareness and ELLs
- Rhyming may be difficult for ELL students because
it is so dependent on English oral language
proficiency. - Nursery rhymes in Spanish are more likely to play
with vowels, while in English they are more
likely to play with consonants. - ELL students need to see rhyming words in print
as well as hear them. - Two types of phoneme manipulations seem to be
directly involved in the reading and spelling
process blending and segmenting.
46Viento trabajador
- El viento es trabajador.
- Soplando, soplando va,
- ayudando al sembrador
- y cantando así al pasar
- uuu, uuu, uuu.
- En los campos y praderas
- el viento es muy juguetón
- hace bailar las hojitas
- al trino de su canción
- Uuu, uuu, uuu.
47Cosas que vemos
- La arañita es muy ligera
- porque tiene muchos pies,
- por su rápida carerra,
- muy notable es!
- La, la, la
- Y el buen caracolito
- que tan sólo tiene un pie,
- porque avanza despacito,
- muy notable es!
- La, la, la, la
48Hey Diddle Diddle (Nonsensical for ELL Students)
- Hey, diddle, diddle,The cat and the fiddle,The
cow jumped over the moon.The little dog
laughedTo see such sport,And the dish ran away
with the spoon.
49Sing a Song of Sixpence (Nonsensical for ELL
Students)
- Sing a song of sixpence,A pocket full of
ryeFour and twenty blackbirdsBaked in a
pie.When the pie was opened,They all began to
sing.Now, wasn't that a dainty dishTo set
before the King? - The King was in his countinghouse,Counting out
his moneyThe Queen was in the parlorEating
bread and honey.The maid was in the
garden,Hanging out the clothes.Along there came
a big black birdAnd snipped off her nose!
50Teacher Roles in RTI
- What new roles will teachers have?
- Delivering scientifically-based instruction for
all students including ELL students - Administering curriculum-based measures
- Regularly monitoring progress
- Interpreting data
- Grouping students
- Choosing appropriate interventions
- Making decisions as to which students move into
higher tiers
51- To teach in a manner that respects and cares for
the souls of our students is essential if we are
to provide the necessary conditions where
learning can most deeply and intimately begin. - - bell hooks, Teaching to Transgress
52To Conclude
- It is essential to find out what works with
whom - (cited in NCCRESt, 2005, p. 5).
- http//www.nccrest.org/