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Lecture 6: Long Term Memory Basic Principles

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Title: Lecture 6: Long Term Memory Basic Principles


1
Lecture 6 Long Term Memory - Basic Principles
Psyc 317 Cognitive Psychology
2
Levels of Processing (LOP)
  • Craik Lockhart (1972)
  • Quality of memory depends on how information is
    encoded
  • Lets have a demo

3
Count of vowels in each word
  • Chair
  • Mathematics
  • Elephant
  • Lamp
  • Car
  • Elevator
  • Cactus
  • Count backward from 100 by 3s
  • Write down as many words as you can remember!

4
Visualize how useful the item would be on a
deserted island
  • Umbrella
  • Exercise
  • Forgiveness
  • Rock
  • Hamburger
  • Sunlight
  • Bottle
  • Count backward from 90 by 3s
  • Write down as many words as you can remember!

5
How did you do?
  • Chair
  • Mathematics
  • Elephant
  • Lamp
  • Car
  • Elevator
  • Cactus
  • Umbrella
  • Exercise
  • Forgiveness
  • Rock
  • Hamburger
  • Sunlight
  • Bottle

6
What LOP tells us
  • Memory for words is better when they are linked
    to other knowledge
  • Visualizing item use on deserted island links the
    words to knowledge
  • Counting vowels focuses on the word itself
  • Depth of processing

7
Depth of Processing
  • Shallow processing
  • Little attention to meaning
  • Focus on physical features of the word (number of
    vowels, letters in all capitals)
  • Occurs during maintenance rehearsal

8
Depth of Processing
  • Deep processing
  • Close attention to meaning
  • Relating item to something else
  • Deep processing takes longer
  • Deep processing results in better memory

9
Experimental Evidence for LOP
  • Craik Tulving (1975)

10
Types of questions
  • Shallow
  • Is the word printed in capital letters?
  • Deeper
  • Does the word rhyme with train?
  • Deepest
  • Does the word fit into the sentence He saw a
    ____ on the street?

11
Craik Tulving Results
Shallow
Deeper
Deepest
  • Deeper processing takes longer but results in
    better memory

12
Issues with deep processing
  • Deep processing isnt really well defined
  • Deep processing doesnt always take longer
  • Slow Count vowels in automobile
  • Fast Car-Transportation or vegetable?
  • Meaning task is faster

13
Aiding Encoding Forming additional connections
  • More descriptive sentences for memory
  • Chicken
  • She cooked the chicken.
  • The great bird swooped down and carried off the
    struggling chicken.
  • Which sentence would help you to remember the
    word chicken?

14
Aiding Encoding Forming additional connections
  • Referencing yourself

15
Transfer-Appropriate Processing
  • Does deeper processing always result in better
    memory?.
  • Retrieval is enhanced if method of encoding

16
Morris, et al. (1977)
  • Two methods of encoding
  • Semantic acquisition Does the word fit into this
    sentence The ___ rode a bicycle.
  • Deep processing
  • Rhyming acquisition Does the word rhyme with
    toy?
  • Shallow processing

17
Morris, et al. (1977)
  • One method of retrieval
  • Rhyming test Present unseen word
  • Which word presented before rhymes with current
    word?
  • Summary of the two conditions
  • Semantic acquisition (SA), rhyming test (RT)
  • Rhyming acquisition (RA), rhyming test (RT)

18
Morris, et al. Results
19
What does this mean?
  • The principle of encoding specificity
  • State-dependent learning

20
Why do these help encoding?
  • Retrieval cues
  • Related to
  • Retrieval (coming up soon)
  • Distributed activation (future lecture)

21
Aiding Encoding Organizing Information
  • Jenkins Russell (1952)
  • People will spontaneously organize items as they
    recall them
  • Demo
  • Remember the words in the list I read
  • Write the words down in any order

22
Aiding Encoding Organizing Information
  • One person Tell me the words you wrote down in
    order
  • Apple, plum, banana, shirt, shoe, sofa, desk,
    chair
  • Bower et. al (1969) - Present words in concept
    trees
  • Organized vs. random trees

23
Organized tree for minerals
  • Organized trees 73 words
  • Random trees 21 words

24
Organization adds a meaningful framework
  • If the balloons popped, the sound wouldnt be
    able to carry since everything would be too far
    away from the correct floor. A closed window
    would also prevent the sound from carrying, since
    most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since
    the whole operation depends on the steady flow of
    electricity, a break in the middle of the wire
    could also cause problems.

25
Bransford Johnson (1972)
  • What?!?
  • Does this help?

26
Outline
  • Structure of Long-Term Memory (LTM)
  • Encoding information into LTM
  • Storing information in LTM
  • Retrieving information from LTM

27
How do we store memories?
  • In the brain! At the synapse level
  • Memories are represented through)

28
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
  • New experience causes neuron A to release
    neurotransmitter
  • Repeated activity causes greater
  • This leads to enhanced firing

29
Hebbian Learning
30
Ideas like this win Nobel Prizes
  • Many researchers have shown that LTP is easiest
    to generate
  • Kandel (2001) won a Nobel Prize for his work in
    this area

31
LTP occurs in neural circuits
  • Hebb expanded his LTP
  • At first, circuits are
  • But they fire close together

32
Remembering Sallys number
33
Memory consolidation
  • Period to consolidate memories is known as
  • If consolidation is disrupted for a lot of
    memories, the

34
The hippocampus and memory
  • Consolidation is directed by the temporal
  • H.M. had hippocampus removed to control seizures,
    but he couldnt form new long-term memories

35
H.M.s brain damage
  • H.M.s damage was not just in the hippocampus,
    but most of his medial-temporal lobe

36
Conclusions from H.M.
  • Hippocampus is not needed for
  • Hippocampus IS
  • Hippocampus is not
  • Hippocampus is not

37
Outline
  • Structure of Long-Term Memory (LTM)
  • Encoding information into LTM
  • Storing information in LTM
  • Retrieving information from LTM

38
How do we remember things?
  • Retrieval!
  • Most memory failures are that of retrieval
  • How can retrieval be made better?

39
Retrieval Cues
  • Real-world examples
  • Visiting the house you grew up in brings back
    childhood memories
  • Something random reminds you to go to the store
  • Other examples?

40
Tulving Pearlstone (1966)
  • Present 48 words randomly from groups

41
Mantyla (1986)
  • Subjects saw 600 nouns, write 3 words associated
    with each noun

42
State-depedent learning
  • State-dependent learning
  • Memory is best if a person is in the same state
    for encoding and retrieval
  • Lets look at some examples

43
Godden Baddeley (1975)Learning Environment
44
Grant et. al (1998)Learning Conditions
45
Elch Metcalfe (1989)Learning Mood
46
Encoding specificity works!
  • By matching internal and external
  • So if youre tired now, make sure youre tired
    for the exam!

47
What this says about studying Elaboration
  • Study using deep,
  • Dont just read, but
  • Peterson (1992) - 82 of students highlight
  • No
  • What else can you do?

48
What this says about studying Organize
  • You need a meaningful
  • Use my lecture outlines
  • Create your own lecture outlines
  • What else can you do?

49
What this says about studying Associate
  • Create mnemonics!
  • Four lobes of the brain
  • Frontal in the front
  • Parietal is partway between the front and back
  • Temporal lobe is near the temples
  • Other mnemonics?

50
What this says about studying Take Breaks
  • Get some
  • Give your brain
  • Distributed vs. massed practice effect (Reder
    Anderson, 1982)
  • Difficult to hold
  • Studying after a break
  • Studying same material

51
What this says about studying Encoding
Specificity
  • Match study and test conditions
  • Break into the classroom and study?
  • Study in as many places as possible
  • Reduce how much of the knowledge is tied to a
    specific context
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