CHANGING PERSPECTIVES IN ECOLOGY AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION: Achieving Landscape And Regional Sus

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CHANGING PERSPECTIVES IN ECOLOGY AND BIODIVERSITY
CONSERVATION Achieving Landscape And Regional
Sustainability

• Jianguo (Jingle) Wu
• School of Life Sciences Global Institute of
  Sustainability
• Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287

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OUTLINE

• 1. Why Biodiversity Conservation?
• 2. Balance of Nature Myth or Reality?
• 3. Theory of Island Biogeography Useful at all?
• 4. SLOSS Missing the Real Point?
• 5. MVP/PVA Trustworthy and Efficient Enough?
• 6. Metapopulation Theory Elegant, but
  Oversimplistic?
• 7. Integrative Perspectives and Planning
  Principles for Biodiversity Conservation
• 8. Concluding Remarks

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Why Is Biodiversity Important?

• Goods and ecosystem services
• Goods e.g., food, shelters, timber, fiber, and
  pharmaceuticals
• Services e.g., water and air purification,
  climate control, nutrient recycling, carbon
  sequestration, and control of pests and diseases
• Maintaining ecosystem structure and function
• e.g., food webs, primary production, nutrient
  cycling, decomposition
• Intrinsic values

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How many species are there, and Where Are They?

• Conservative estimates 3 to 30 million (as low
  as 2 million and as high as 100 million), with
  most of the species being arthropods
• Classified and documented about 1.4 to 1.5
  million species of plants, animals and micros
• v Most biodiversity-rich ecosystems
• o tropical rainforests Tropical rainforests
  occupy about 7 of the earths surface, but host
  more than 50 of species of all kinds, including
  an estimated 5 million species of plants and
  animals
• o coral reefs
• o wetlands

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Rapid Biodiversity Loss Due To Habitat Loss and
Fragmentation
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Increasing Human Population and Resource
Consumption Have Led to Biodiversity Loss and
Ecosystem Degradation
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Questions That Must Be Addressed

• How can biodiversity be conserved with ever
  increasing human pressures on the natural
  environment?
• How should humans and their activities be viewed
  and treated in planning and managing natural
  resources for conserving biodiversity?
• Are there sound scientific theories and
  principles for biodiversity conservation? What
  are they? Are They Adequate?

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Balance of Nature

• Nature maintains a permanence of structure and
  function with a harmonious order if left alone,
  and that it can self-organize and return to its
  previous equilibrium after disturbances.
• Profoundly influenced both the theory and
  practice of ecology and conservation biology

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Balance of Nature

• Profoundly influenced both the theory and
  practice of ecology and conservation biology
• supraorganismic concept
• cybernetic concept of ecosystems
• equilibrium, steady-state, stability, and
  homeostasis
• classical equilibrium paradigm
• influences on the guiding principles and practice
  of biodiversity conservation and environmental
  protection

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Flux of Nature

• Spatial heterogeneity (patchiness gradients) is
  ubiquitous across all scales and organization
  levels
• Nonlinearity and transient dynamics dominate
  ecosystems
• Shift of perspectives from equilibrium,
  homogeneity, determinism, and single-scale
  phenomena to nonequilibrium, heterogeneity,
  stochasticity, and multi-scale linkages of
  ecological systems. 
• B of N Is A Myth Rather Than A Scientific Concept
• Nature is not in constant balance rather, it is
  in eternal flux.

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Hierarchical Patch Dynamics Paradigm
(Wu and Levin, 1994 Wu and Loucks, 1995 Pickett
et al., 1999 Wu, 1999)

• Ecological systems are spatially nested patch
  hierarchies, in which larger patches are made of
  smaller patches
• Dynamics of an ecological system can be studied
  as the composite dynamics of individual patches
  and their interactions at adjacent hierarchical
  levels
• Pattern and process are scale dependent, and
  interactive
• Nonequilibrium and stochastic processes are not
  only common, but also essential for the structure
  and functioning of ecological systems
• Ecological stability frequently takes the form of
  metastability that is achieved through structural
  and functional redundancy and incorporation in
  space and time.

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Theory of Island Biogeography

• v The existence of an equilibrium species
  diversity for a given island as extinction and
  immigration rates become equal,
• v The effect of island-mainland distance on the
  species immigration rate, and the effect of
  island area on the extinction rate
• v Higher equilibrium species diversity on larger
  and less distant islands
• Greater species turnover on smaller and less
  distant islands

• Key design principles derived large, round,
  close, connected
• Adopted as part of the World Conservation
  Strategy by IUCN in 1980

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Theory of Island Biogeography

• Problems
• v Equilibrium assumption
• v Multi-faceted influences of landscape context
• v Internal habitat heterogeneity, disturbance
  regimes and patch dynamics
• v Edge effects
• Multiple species sources
• No park is an island (Jansen 1983)!
• -------------------------------------------------
  -------------------------
• So, the theory of island biogeography is
  heuristically useful, but practically flawed.

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SLOSS

• v SLOSS single large or several small reserves
• v Oversimplified the complexity of species
  diversity dynamics
• v Overlooked several issues critically important
  to conservation planning and implementation
• MVP
• minimum area to sustain MVP
• minimum dynamic area
• landscape connectivity
• specific conservation goals
• v Both large and small habitat patches have
  advantages and disadvantages

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MVP and PVA

• MVP - the smallest isolated population having a
  99 chance of remaining extant for 1000 years
  despite the foreseeable effects of demographic,
  environmental, and genetic stochasticity, and
  natural catastrophes (Shaffer, 1981)
• PVA - population viability analysis
• v Problems
• o Single species and reductionistic methodology
• o Great demand for detailed data
• o Too time-consuming and costly not efficient
• o MVP is dynamic and context-dependent!
• o Using PVA to determine MVP is a wrong
  conservation focus because of the uncertainties
  associated with the models and data used in PVA
  (Reed et al, 2002).

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Metapopulation Theory

• v Levins (1970) a population of populations
  which go extinct locally and recolonize
• v Two key processes extinction and colonization
• v A major finding Order can come out of
  disorder.
• v Much of metapopulation research math modeling
• v Species-specific focus and inadequate
  consideration of the heterogeneity of landscape
  matrix and socioeconomic processes
• v Needs to make the B/W assumption more
  colorful.

v?So, the metapopulation approach is useful, but
certainly not adequate for achieving the overall
goal of conserving all levels of biodiversity.
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Integrative Perspectives and Planning Principles
for Biodiversity Conservation

• A more comprehensive conceptual framework is
  needed that integrates different levels of
  biodiversity / landscape patterns / ecological
  and socioeconomic processes.
• Such conceptual framework has to be highly
  interdisciplinary, cutting across natural and
  social sciences.
• v Shift from the traditional species-based focus
  to a multi-level and multi-scale landscape
  perspective in both the theory and practice of
  biodiversity conservation.

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Perspectives Of Landscape Ecology And
Sustainability Science
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What Is Landscape Ecology?

• The science and art of studying and influencing
  the spatial pattern of landscapes and its
  ecological consequences (Wu and Hobbs 2007).
• The science of landscape ecology provides the
  theoretical basis for understanding the
  formation, dynamics and ecological effects of
  spatial heterogeneity, and the relationship
  between landscape pattern and ecological and
  socioeconomic processes over different scales in
  space and time.
• The art of landscape ecology reflects the
  humanistic perspectives necessary for integrating
  biophysical and socioeconomic and cultural
  components within the landscape in general, and
  landscape design, planning, and management in
  particular.

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Interdisciplinary Pyramid of Landscape Ecology
Wu, J. 2006. Cross-disciplinarity, landscape
ecology, and sustainability science. Landscape
Ecology 211-4.
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Key Topics in Landscape EcologyWu and Hobbs
(2002, 2007)

• Ecological flows in landscape mosaics
• Causes, processes, and consequences of land use
  and land cover change
• Nonlinear dynamics and landscape complexity
• Scaling
• Methodological development
• Relating landscape metrics to ecological
  processes
• Integrating humans and their activities
  into landscape ecology
  research
• Optimization of landscape pattern
• Landscape conservation and
  sustainability
• Data acquisition and accuracy
  assessment

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Sustainability and Sustainability Science

• Sustainability the capacity of a society to meet
  present human needs while preserving the life
  support system for future generations
• Sustainability Science the study of the dynamic
  relationship between nature and society
• Three Pillars
• Environmental, Economic, and Social
• Scales
• Space Local/Regional/Global
• Time Decades to centuries

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Landscape Ecology Sustainability Science
Wu, J. 2006. Cross-disciplinarity, landscape
ecology, and sustainability science. Landscape
Ecology 211-4.
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Principles for Regional-Scale Biodiversity
Conservation Planning
Poiani et al. (2000)
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Principles for Regional-Scale Biodiversity
Conservation Planning

• v The landscape approach (or the ecosystem
  approach) is often characterized by
• Ongoing shift in conservation planning towards
  broader spatial scales
• Multiplicity in organizational levels and spatial
  scales
• Explicit consideration of both biodiversity and
  ecosystem processes
• Emphasis on the overall landscape and regional
  sustainability
• Integrates both the coarse-filter and
  fine-filter strategies
• The most comprehensive landscape approach takes
  into account all land cover types in a region,
  ranging from the remnant ecosystems to the
  heavily populated areas - a landscape continuum
  view

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The Nature Conservancy (TNC) Regional
Conservation Planning Framework (Poiani et al.,
1998, 2000 Groves et al., 2002)

• incorporates the idea of multi-level and
  multi-scale biodiversity, systematic conservation
  planning approaches, and many principles from
  landscape ecology and sustainability science
• vintegrates both the coarse-filter and
  fine-filter strategies

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TNCs Seven-Step Regional Conservation Planning
Framework

• Step 1 Identify conservation targets 3 types
• v Abiotic or landscape (e.g., elevation, soil,
  landscape patterns)
• v Communities and ecosystems
• Species (e.g., imperiled or endangered, endemic,
  focal, keystone)
• Step 2 Collect information and identify
  information gaps
• v Use a variety of data sources
• Use a variety of methods, e.g.
• rapid ecological assessments (TNC) / rapid
  assessment programs (Conservation International)
• biological inventories / expert workshops

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TNCs Seven-Step Regional Conservation Planning
Framework

• Step 3 Establish conservation goals
• v Quantify the representation and quality of the
  conservation targets
• v The targets should be distributed across
  environmental gradients
• v Set realistic goals
• Step 4 Assess existing conservation areas
• v Determine what biodiversity features are
  already adequately protected
• What more need to be done
• Step 5 Evaluate ability of conservation targets
  to persist
• v 3 criteria size, condition, and landscape
  context
• v PVA for species
• v Estimate minimum dynamic area for communities
  and ecosystems
• v Assess habitat connectivity and landscape
  integrity using LE methods

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TNCs Seven-Step Regional Conservation Planning
Framework

• Step 6. Assemble a portfolio of conservation
  areas
• v Identify a set of potential conservation areas
  in the region, facilitated by GIS and
  computerized selection algorithms
• v Select the appropriate conservation areas and
  design the network configuration based on
  principles of biogeographic theory and
  landscape ecology
• Step 7. Identify priority conservation areas.
  TNC uses 5 criteria to set priorities
• degree of existing protection (extent and
  quality)
• conservation value (the number, diversity and
  persistence of conservation targets)
• threat (by various disturbances)
• feasibility (likelihood of land acquisition and
  logistic issues)
• leverage (broader impacts)

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UNEP-CBDs Ecosystem Approach Principles

• 1) The objectives of management of land, water
  and living resources are a matter of societal
  choices.
• 2) Management should be decentralized to the
  lowest appropriate level.
• 3) consider the effects on adjacent and other
  ecosystems.
• 4) Recognizing potential gains from management,
  need to understand and manage the ecosystem in an
  economic context.
• 5) Conservation of ecosystem structure and
  functioning, in order to maintain ecosystem
  services.
• 6) Ecosystem must be managed within the limits of
  their functioning.

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UNEP-CBDs Ecosystem Approach Principles

• 7) The ecosystem approach should be undertaken at
  the appropriate spatial and temporal scales.
• 8) Recognizing the varying temporal scales and
  lag-effects , objectives should be set for the
  long term.
• 9) Management must recognize the change is
  inevitable.
• 10) seek the appropriate balance between, and
  integration of, conservation and use of
  biological diversity.
• 11) consider all forms of relevant information,
  including scientific and indigenous and local
  knowledge, innovations and practices.
• 12) involve all relevant sectors of society and
  scientific disciplines.

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Principles for Regional-Scale Biodiversity
Conservation Planning
vThe principles for conservation planning used in
these two examples clearly o go far beyond the
traditional specie-based strategies, o incorporate
most of the new ideas in biodiversity
research o fit well with the perspectives of
landscape ecology and sustainability
science o The TNC framework has been tested and
revised in implementing more than 45 regional
conservation plans in the United States, Latin
America, the Caribbean, Micronesia, and China
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CONCLUDING REMARKS

• Nature is not in balance rather it is in
  constant flux.
• The world is highly dynamic and fragmented
  ecologically, economically, and politically.
• To survive and persist, biological organisms as
  well as humans must be able to cope with
  heterogeneity.
• Effective conservation strategies must explicitly
  recognize
• that biodiversity manifests itself at multiple
  organizational levels and spatial scales,
• that landscapes in which biodiversity resides are
  ever-changing in a hardly predictable way, and
• that biodiversity is but one essential component
  of a sustainable landscape or a sustainable
  world.

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CONCLUDING REMARKS

• The ultimate success of biodiversity conservation
  in any region is more than likely to be tied with
  the economic and social sustainability of that
  region.
• Therefore, future research and practice of
  biodiversity conservation need to be further
  integrated with landscape ecology and
  sustainability science.

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CONCLUDING REMARKS

• Beyond balance of nature nature knows best
• Beyond species and populations
• Beyond habitat patches protected areas
• Beyond biodiversity
• Beyond tomorrow
• Beyond conservation
• Beyond nature
• Beyond ecology
• Beyond science

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Thank You!
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CONCLUDING REMARKS

• Beyond balance of nature nature knows best
• Beyond species and populations
• Beyond habitat patches protected areas
• Beyond biodiversity
• Beyond tomorrow
• Beyond conservation
• Beyond nature
• Beyond ecology
• Beyond science