Myths and Legends Lecture

1
Discussion Sections this week Read A Second
Poem of Helgi Hundigsbani (in the Elder Edda, p.
132-141. This corresponds to events in the
Volsunga saga, Chapter 9 (p. 48-50). The other
Eddic Poems dealing with the Volsung legend (p.
114-242) are recommended reading.
2
Saga of the Volsungs

• Combination of Myth, Legend and History.
• Most popular of the Icelandic legendary sagas.
• Time set in Age of Migrations (375 - 453 A.D.)
• Material also treated in the medieval German
  epic, das Nibelungenlied (c. 1200)an Austrian
  version from the far corner of the Germanic
  world.
• Saga based on oral lore roughly 800 years old.
• Direct Sources for Volsunga saga are the poems of
  the Poetic Edda (recommended reading, 114-242).

3
Saga of the Volsungs

• Volsunga saga composed in Iceland in present form
  1260-1270. Oldest manuscript from 1400.
• Saga style, much shorter and more intensive than
  the Nibelungenlied.
• Many inconsistencies between poetic versions and
  the two remaining epic versions.
• In addition to the ancient Germanic legends,
  there are also Celtic and romance elements.
• Völkerwanderung as age of heroic myth.
• Sigurd/Siegfried as the Germanic Hero.

4
Saga of the Volsungs

• Why was the work so famous?
• National cultural identity
• Dynastic considerations / divine legitimacy
• Epic tragedy of monumental proportions
• Age of Myth, heroic ancestry
• Many representations in Norse art
• Influence of the Volsunga saga
• Richard Wagner, J.R.R. Tolkien

5
Saga of the Volsungs

• Timeline of the Saga History
• Prehistory of supernatural events and legends
• Historical events (c. 430-460 A.D.) of the
  Germanic Völkerwanderung.
• Legend in early poems and heroic lays, Beowulf
  and Lay of Ragnar, before 700-800 A.D.
• Legend spreads throughout Viking/Germanic world,
  from Austria to Greenland. Oral poetry.
• Nibelungenlied in Germany c. 1200, Volsunga saga
  in Iceland c.1270.

6
Saga of the Volsungs

• Divisions within the Saga
• 1. Prehistory of Sigurd (1-13)
• 2. Mythological foundation (14-16) Otters
  Ransom
• 3. Heroic Legend (17-20) Sigurds revenge, dragon
• 4. Legendary Romance (21-25) Brynhild
• 5. History and Legend (26-33) Gjuki and Gudrun
• 6. History (34-44) Gudrun and Atli

7
Saga of the Volsungs
Characters in the Volsunga saga 1 Odin \ Sigi,
King of the Hunland in the Volsunga saga \
Rerir, King of the Huns, Hljod, a wish maiden
assists his wife in getting pregnant \ Volsung
marries Hljod (incest of sorts) \ Sigmund and
Signy (9 other sons, killed by Siggeir) \
8
Saga of the Volsungs
Characters in the Volsunga saga 2 a). 2 sons (by
Signy Siggeir, killed by Sigmund) no
offspring b.) Sinfjotli (by Signy and Sigmund)
no offspring (result of incestuous match) c).
Helgi (Borghild Sigmund) and Hamund no
offspring of note (line continues!) d). Sigurd
(Sigmund Hjordis) Sigmund loses sword, dies,
she marries King Alf, raises Sigurd.
9
Saga of the Volsungs
Historical Characters in the Volsunga saga
3 (Gudruns husbands and children) \ a). a son
(killed by Gunnar d. 437), Svanhild (Sigurd
Gudrun) killed by husband Jormunrek (d.
376) b). 2 sons, murdered by Gudrun (Gudrun
Atli d. 453) c). Erp, Hamdir and Sorli, killed
in attempted vengeance for Svanhild (Gudrun
Jonakr) d). Sunhilda, Sarus, and Ammius also
mentioned in Roman accounts (Jordanes, History of
the Goths).
10
Saga of the Volsungs 1-2

• Sigi, son of Odin, kills a thrall (Bredi) and is
  outlawed made a wolf in hallowed places (35).
• Odin guides Sigi to a new land where he gives
  Sigi command of warships and he wins a kingdom
  Hunland. Here a Germanic kingdom.
• When Sigi was old, his wifes brothers attacked
  him familial intrigue a recurrent theme!
• Sigi falls, but his son Rerir wreaks vengeance
  against his own relatives.

11
Saga of the Volsungs 2-3

• Rerir and his wife have no children, so Rerir
  prays to Frigg she has Odin send a wish maiden
  (giantess Hljod) with a fertility apple (36).
• Rerir dies, but his wife gives birth (by
  C-section) to Volsung after a 6 year pregnancy!
  The entire dynasty is named after Volsung. (Engl.
  Waels).
• Volsung then marries Hljod a sort of incest?
• Twins Sigmund and Signy born, and 10 others.
• King Siggeir of Gautland asks for Signy in
  marriage Volsung organizes a wedding feast.

12
Saga of the Volsungs 3-4

• Odin appears (disguised) in the hall, thrusts a
  sword into the tree Barnstock and calls it a gift
  for whomever can pull it from the tree (38).
• Everyone tries, but only Sigmund can pull it out.
• King Siggeir offers to buy the sword, but Sigmund
  refuses to part with it.
• Siggeir marries Signy, who foretells only misery
  from the marriage (39).
• King Siggeir then invites Volsung to visit him
  treachery planned also a common theme.

13
Saga of the Volsungs 5

• Volsung arrives at Gautland for the feast, but
  Signy warns him that he has been trapped.
• Volsung refuses to retreat from any battle he
  fights bravely, but is overwhelmed and killed.
• All his 10 sons taken captive Signy delays her
  brothers execution.
• A she-wolf kills one son each night in the
  forest.
• Signy send a servant to prepare the honey-trick.
• Sigmund kills the she-wolf and escapes (41f.).

14
Saga of the Volsungs 6-7

• Sigmund dwells alone in the forest, hiding from
  King Siggeir primitive, stone-age life.
• Signy has two sons, sends them to her brother to
  be tested famous flour-sack trial (42).
• Sons fail the test Sigmund kills his nephews on
  advice of their mother.
• Signy swaps semblances with a sorceress, visits
  her brother in the forest, sleeps with him.
  Incest.
• Signy gives birth to Sinfjotli, who passes the
  famous flour-sack trial with Sigmund.

15
Saga of the Volsungs 8

• Sigmund and Sinfjotli live together in the
  forest, hunt men for their money.
• They come across two men, steal their wolf skins,
  become werewolves themselves.
• The werewolves quarrel over their own boldness,
  eventually they burn the wolf skins and return to
  their normal shape.
• When Sinfjotli is a man, they think of vengeance.
• They attack Siggeir Sinfjotli kills his two
  half-brothers, but he and Sigmund are taken
  captive.

16
Saga of the Volsungs 8

• King Siggeir has Sigmund and Sinfjotli buried
  alive, separated by a great stone slab (46).
• Signy smuggles Sigmunds sword to them before
  they are enclosed they use it to escape.
• They then set fire to Siggeirs hall in the
  night.
• They ask Signy to leave, but she confesses her
  incest out of desire for vengeance she is now
  content to die with Siggeir.
• Sigmund returns to Hunland, becomes king.

17
Saga of the Volsungs 8-10

• King Sigmund marries Borghild, has son Helgi.
• Little is heard of Sinfjotli until later
  incestuous line does not continue.
• Prince Helgi wins battles, fights King Hodbrod to
  win the latters reluctant fiancé, Sigrun.
• Helgi was a famous king in other sagas, but plays
  no role in the rest of Volsunga saga.
• Sinfjotli desires fiancé of Queen Borghilds
  brother kills him to get the woman.

18
Saga of the Volsungs 10-11

• Borghild offers poison to Sinfjotli Sigmund
  drinks it twice, but is too drunk the third time.
• Sinfjotli knows it is poison, drinks and dies.
• Sigmund takes his body to the forest, where Odin
  appears and takes the body away.
• Sigmund drives away evil Borghild, she dies.
• Sigmund decides to marry Hjordis, which starts a
  war with her first suitor, King Lyngi.
• Lyngi attacks old Sigmund but he cannot be
  defeated until Odin appears to break his sword.

19
Saga of the Volsungs 12-13

• Queen Hjordis escaped death in the battle, found
  her dying husband, Sigmund and collected the
  shards of his famous sword.
• Hjordis swaps clothes and names with servant.
• Danish Viking Alf appears, takes the girls and
  treasure back to his father in Denmark.
• King Hjalprek discovers her true identity
  Hjordis marries his son, King Alf.
• Hjordis gives birth to Sigmunds son, Sigurd.

20
Saga of the Volsungs 13-14

• Sigurd grows up in Hjalpreks hall in great love
  and honor.
• Regin, Sigurds foster-father, persuades him to
  confront the Dragon Fafnir and take his wealth.
• Regin recounts the Tale of Otters Ransom (57).
• Hreidmar, with sons Fafnir, Otr, and Regin.
• Otr was a shape-shifter, hunted salmon in the
  shape of an otter.
• Loki unknowingly killed Otr with a stone.

21
Saga of the Volsungs 14

• Odin, Hnir, and Loki arrive at Hreidmars hall
  that evening, show their lucky catch to their
  host, and are taken prisoner.
• The Ransom of the Gods is to fill the Otter skin
  with gold and then cover it with gold.
• Loki goes to fetch the ransom he uses Rans net
  to catch Dwarf Andvari in the form of a pike.
• Andvari surrenders his gold, even his last little
  ring, but curses the ring and the golden treasure.

22
Saga of the Volsungs 14

• Loki ransoms Odin and Hnir the gold just
  manages to cover the erect Otter skin one
  whisker protrudes, and Odin covers that with
  Andvaris ring (Andvaranautr).
• Andvaris curse is thus transferred to Hreidmars
  family Fafnir kills his father and takes all the
  gold for himself.
• While lying on his gold, his evil and greed
  transform Fafnir into a dragon Lingworm.
• Regin wishes to exploit Sigurd to recover his
  gold.

23
Saga of the Volsungs 14-16

• Sigurd is willing to aid Regin, asks only for a
  sword worthy of such a great feat.
• Sigurd breaks the first two swords fashioned by
  Regin.
• Sigurd collects the shards of his fathers sword,
  Gram (broken by Odin), uses those to fashion a
  new sword it cleaves the anvil in half!
• Before Sigurd can slay the dragon, he must first
  avenge his father, King Sigmund.
• Gripir tells Sigurd of his future (short chapter).

24
Saga of the Volsungs 17-18

• Sigurd collects an army and sails to attack the
  sons of Hunding.
• He meets a man (Hnikar or Fjolnir Odin), who
  gives Sigurd advice before the battle.
• In battle, Sigurd wades through blood to kill
  every living son of Hunding Sigmund avenged!
• Regin reminds Sigurd of his promise to kill
  Fafnir he advises Sigurd to lie in a hole and
  wait for the dragon to pass overhead
• Sigurd advances bravely Regin runs home, afraid.

25
Saga of the Volsungs 18

• As Sigurd digs his hole, Odin arrives to tell him
  to dig several extra holes (for the dragon
  blood).
• Sigurd waits for Fafnir, thrusts the sword Gram
  into the dragons heart, causing his death wound.
• Lengthy Dialogue ensues between Sigurd and the
  dying Dragon, Fafnir Who are you, and tell me
  about your parents
• Fafnir tells Sigurd that with the gold he will
  inherit the curse of Andvari Sigurd takes the
  gold anyway.

26
Saga of the Volsungs 19-20

• Regin returns when it is safe, having hid like a
  coward while Sigurd confronted Fafnir.
• Regin is unsure whether to gloat, to cry for his
  dead brother, or seek vengeance against Sigurd.
• Regin asks Sigurd to roast his own brothers
  heart so that he can eat it.
• While roasting the heart, Sigurd tastes the blood
  to see if the meat has been cooked when it
  touches his tongue he can understand the language
  of birds (nuthatches in some versions).

27
Saga of the Volsungs 19-20

• The birds tell him of the wisdom to be gained by
  eating the heart, and also of Regins treachery.
• The birds also tell him that he would be better
  off if he killed Regin, took the gold, and
  seduced the beautiful Brynhild.
• So Sigurd lops off Regins head and eats most of
  the dragon heart himself. He also gets all the
  gold.
• He loads his horse Grani with the gold, almost
  too much to carry, rides off.

28
Saga of the Volsungs

• Sigurd and Grani

29
Saga of the Volsungs

• Reforging Gram

30
Saga of the Volsungs

• Reforging Gram

31
Saga of the Volsungs

• Fafnir, the Dragon

32
Saga of the Volsungs

• Fafnir, the Dragon

33
Saga of the Volsungs

• Fafnir is slain

34
Saga of the Volsungs
Sigurd tastes Fafnirs blood
35
Saga of the Volsungs
Brynhild behind the wall of flames
Sigurd and his horse, Grani
36
Saga of the Volsungs 21

• Sigurd rides to Frakkland (land of the Franks),
  sees a great light a wall of fire.
• Sigurd discovers the valkyrie Brynhild asleep,
  cuts off her armor and wakens her (67).
• She tells him that she was punished by Odin for
  supporting young Agnar against old Hjalmgunnar in
  a battle cursed with marriage!
• She vowed she would only marry a man who knew no
  fear who could only be Sigurd.

37
Saga of the Volsungs 21-22

• Sigurd asks the valkyrie to teach him the way
  of mighty things. She recites a long poem,
  telling him of runes and magic (67-71).
• Brynhild recites more wisdom to him very
  similar to the lines of Havamal, where Odin
  speaks of how a good Viking warrior should act.
• Sigurd is impressed by her beauty and wisdom He
  swears that he will marry her, and she wants that
  too they pledge vows between them.

38
Saga of the Volsungs 23-25

• Sigurds appearance described (72).
• Chivalric elements have been added to the text
  here some contamination from courtly romance.
  (Courtesy, for example).
• Sigurds Second Meeting of Brynhild at Heimar
  textual corruption or inconsistency?
• Brynhild stays in her bower, embroiders tapestry
  with Sigurds noble deeds he sees her in the
  tower, but does not remember her.

39
Saga of the Volsungs 25

• Sigurd vows to gain her affection (through
  gold!). (cite 74)
• Brynhild tells Sigurd that they cannot marry,
  for she is a shield-maiden destined to fight,
  and he is fated to marry Gudrun.
• Sigurd insists no kings daughter will entice
  me and swears a second time to marry her.

40
Saga of the Volsungs 26-27

• The Burgundians are introduced
• King Gjuki (and evil Queen-witch Grimhild), his
  sons Gunnar, Hogni and Guttorm, and his daughter
  Gudrun.
• King Atli (Attila) introduced as well here he
  is the brother of Brynhild.
• Gudrun has dreams of a hawk she decides to
  visit Brynhild for an interpretation (76).
• Brynhild interprets dream of a stag (cite 77f.).

41
Saga of the Volsungs 28

• Evil Grimhild decides that Sigurd would be a
  good catch for her family. She brews the Ale of
  Forgetfulness that causes him to forget Brynhild
  and his love for her.
• Sigurd stays for nearly 3 years, King Gjuki
  offers him his daughter Gudrun, and Sigurd agrees
  to the marriage.
• Gunnar and Hogni swear a Pact of Brotherhood
  with their new brother-in-law.

42
Saga of the Volsungs 28-29

• Norse society generally patrilocal bride
  travels to her husbands home. Sigurds position
  thus unusual, vulnerable, in his wifes land.
• Sigurd gives Gudrun some of Fafnirs heart
  making her grimmer and wiser than before.
• Evil Queen Grimhild suggests that her son Gunnar
  marry Brynhild! He likes the idea.
• Brynhild again surrounded by a fire wall only
  the man brave enough to pass can marry her!

43
Saga of the Volsungs 29

• Gunnar is unable to pass through the fire, even
  on Sigurds horse Grani.
• Sigurd exchanged shapes with Gunnar, Grani leaps
  the flames, and Sigurd seduces Brynhild (while
  pretending to be Gunnar).
• Brynhild surprised that someone other than
  Sigurd could pass through the flames, but he
  passed her test, so she agrees to marry him.

44
Saga of the Volsungs 29

• Sigurd sleeps with Brynhild for three nights
  but places his sword Gram between them. A
  similar scene in Tristan, medieval German epic.
• Sigurd takes a trophy from Brynhild
  Andvaranaut the cursed ring he had given her!
• Brynhild travels to marry Gunnar she leaves
  behind Aslaug, her daughter by Sigurd.
• After the wedding celebration, Sigurd gets his
  memory back is full of sorrow, but keeps quiet.

45
Saga of the Volsungs 30

• Two Queens in any kingdom are too many Brynhild
  and Gudrun dispute over who should be more
  esteemed. Pride and Insults.
• Gudrun proves that her husband Sigurd is best,
  because he was the one who took Brynhild
  herself! And Gudrun has the ring to prove it!
• Brynhild deeply insulted, feels betrayed by
  Sigurd, publicly insulted by Gudrun, and
  humiliated by her marriage to second-rate Gunnar.

46
Saga of the Volsungs 31

• Brynhilds grief only increases she takes to
  her bed, depressed, will not talk to anyone.
• Brynhild insults her husband Gunnar (85) and
  curses his mother, evil Grimhild, who caused the
  whole misfortune a woman usually to blame.
• Brynhild tries to murder Gunnar, but his brother
  Hogni prevents her she vows never again to be
  happy. More lamentation she hides in her room.
• Sigurd is asked to speak with Brynhild.

47
Saga of the Volsungs 31

• Sigurd and Brynhild speak together (cite 87).
• They now both remember their earlier meeting.
• He still loves her, regrets his past mistakes,
  desires that she become his wife.
• She still loves him, but now wants him dead!
  Its a thin line between love and hate.
• Brynhild tells Gunnar a lie that Sigurd slept
  with her while they were together behind the wall
  of fire. (88). Gunnar plots revenge.

48
Saga of the Volsungs 32

• Betrayal of Sigurd Gunnar and Hogni vow to get
  vengeance for Brynhild (and get the gold).
• They do not wish to break their vows, so they
  persuade their brother Guttorm to kill Sigurd.
• They feed Guttorm snake and wolf, until he
  becomes violent and fierce through witchcraft.
• Guttorm attacks while Sigurd is sleeping,
  skewers him to his bed before he dies, Sigurd
  throws Gram and slices Guttorm in half.

49
Saga of the Volsungs 32-33

• Gudrun is in bed covered with Sigurds blood
  Brynhild laughs when she hears Gudrun crying.
• Brynhild soon laments the death of heroic
  Sigurd.
• She bestows gold, gives final prophesy the
  deaths of all then stabs herself.
• Sigurd, Brynhild, and Sigurds son (by Gudrun)
  all burned together in funeral pyre (93).
• Brynhilds Ride to Hel reunites her with
  Sigurd, the man she was fated to love (Edda,
  192-4).

50
Saga of the Volsungs 34

• Gudrun now the central figure of the saga.
• She leaves her brothers, travels through
  wilderness to Denmark, stays 7 seasons.
• Grimhild wants Gudrun back, travels with brothers
  to Gudrun, offer compensation and an evil
  potion with runes (94f.).
• Gudrun forgets her grievances but she still is
  not agreeable to Grimhilds plan for her to marry
  Atli (95).

51
Saga of the Volsungs 34-35

• Grimhild convinces Gudrun to marry Atli, though
  she is unhappy with the idea her life with Atli
  contains little affection.
• Atli has bad dreams, which Gudrun interprets
  (96).
• Atli lusts after Sigurds gold, now in the hands
  of Gunnar and Hogni. He has a claim, since
  inheritance should pass through Gudrun to him.
• Atli invites Burgundians to his hall Gudrun
  suspects treachery, ties wolf hairs onto a ring
  and sends secret runes to warn her brothers.

52
Saga of the Volsungs 35-37

• Ambassador Vingi recarves the warning runes,
  presents the invitation and offer of power (97).
• Kostbera, Hognis wife, reads the runic warnings
  correctly and warns Hogni.
• Kostbera has dreams, which Hogni interprets very
  poorly (98).
• Glaumvor, Gunnars (new) wife, also has dreams
  which he interprets poorly (99).
• The brothers know the danger, but decide to face
  their fate anyway.

53
Saga of the Volsungs 37-38

• Ambassador Vingi brings them to Atlis hall,
  where they see the trap set for them.
• They kill boastful Vingi by beating him with the
  blunt ends of their axes.
• Atli welcomes them on the condition they hand
  over Sigurds gold Gunnar Hogni refuse (100).
• Atli swears to avenge Sigurd and fighting becomes
  general Gudrun joins her brothers in the fight.
• Atli loses much in the battle, laments his fate.

54
Saga of the Volsungs 39

• All of the Burgundians are eventually killed
  except Hogni and Gunnar.
• Gunnar is captured and put in chains.
• Hogni fights resolutely, but he too is
  overpowered and captured (102). Faces torture
  bravely.
• Thrall (slave) Hjallis heart is cut out, shown
  to Gunnar, who can tell by its tremulous quaking
  that it is not Helgi!
• Helgis more resolute heart is cut out he
  laughs while being killed! Example of Viking
  pride!

55
Saga of the Volsungs 39-40

• Gunnar recognizes Hognis heart know that he is
  now the Last of the Burgunian Kings (103).
• Gunnar bound and thrown into a Snake Pit to die
  Gudrun throws him a harp which he plays with his
  toes!
• Gunnar calms all the snakes except one large
  hideous adder which kills him (103).
• Atli gloats over his victory to Gudrun, who
  pretends to bow to his will, but plots vengeance.
• A funeral feast is prepared for Gunnar and Hogni.

56
Saga of the Volsungs 40

• Gudrun seizes her two sons she by Atli, slits
  their throats, and serves them to Atli (104).
• Atli is (justifiably) outraged by Gudruns
  behavior.
• Niflung, Hognis son, helps Gudrun get her
  vengeance. Together, they skewer drunken Atli in
  his bed (104).
• Gudrun and dying Atli exchange lies and taunts
  but she agrees to bury him well, which she does.
• Gudrun sets fire to Atlis hall before she
  leaves, killing all those remaining inside (105).

57
Saga of the Volsungs

• Andvaris Cursed Gold has now killed
• Hreidmar the Giant
• His sons Regin the Smith and Fafnir the Dragon
• Sigurd the Dragon Slayer
• Brynhild the Valkyrie
• The Burgundian Kings Gunnar and Hogni
• Dozens or hundreds of lesser characters (all of
  the warriors belonging to Gunnar and to Atli).
• Only Gudrun is left the curse now follows her.

58
Saga of the Volsungs 41-42

• Gudrun wishes to die, tries to drown herself, but
  is carried by waves to the fortress of King
  Jonakr.
• Beautiful Svanhild, daughter of Sigurd and
  Gudrun, goes with her.
• Jonakr marries Gudrun, they have 3 children
• Hamdir, Sorli and Erp the names Sunhilda,
  Sarus, and Ammius mentioned in Roman chronicle
  (Jordaness History of the Goths).
• Svanhild betrothed to Jormunrek (historical
  Erminrichus, d. 376 A.D.).

59
Saga of the Volsungs 42

• Jormunrek foolishly sends his young son, Randver,
  and evil advisor, Bikki, to fetch beautiful
  Svanhild.
• Bikki advises Randver to seduce Svanhild, since
  he deserved a beautiful young wife more than his
  aged father (107).
• Bikki tells Jormunrek that his son has betrayed
  him and become the lover of his betrothed!
• Jormunrek has Randver hanged, and he has Svanhild
  trampled to death by horses (107).

60
Saga of the Volsungs 43-44

• Gudrun hears of her daughters violent death and
  urges her young sons to vengeance (107).
• Lamentations of Gurdun (108). This is taken from
  the poem The Whetting of Gudrun (Edda 234-7).
• Gudrun prays to Sigurd, that he might ride from
  Hel and take her to his world. Suggestion of
  death.
• Meanwhile, Gudruns sons are given magic that
  protects them from metal (but not stone).
• They ask their brother Erp is he will help them
  his cryptic answer leads them to kill him (108).

61
Saga of the Volsungs 44

• They soon realize the wisdom of Erps answer,
  regret their rashness in killing their brother.
• They attack Jormunrek, slice off his hands and
  his feet but Erp is not there to slice off his
  head, so Jormunrek is able to call for help!
• The defenders attack, but their weapons will not
  bite into the magic armor of Hamdir and Sorli.
• A tall, ancient, one-eyed man appears and advises
  them to stone the boys to death, and it is done.
• Odin puts an end to this line everyone dead!