Games and Simulations: Moving Beyond The FourLetter Word

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Games and Simulations Moving Beyond The
Four-Letter Word

• Digital Game-Based Learning Characteristics,
  Theory and Assessment

Michael M. Grant, PhD Assistant Professor ATT
Research Fellow for the Advanced Learning
Center Instructional Design Technology Program
Cognitive Science Seminar Human, Animal
Machine Learning ? November 1, 2006
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What are Games? Simulations?

• Games
• Competitive exercises
• Beginning, middle end goal winners rules
• Preset steps, procedures
• Fun, engaging
• Simulations
• Ill-defined problem, decisions determine how the
  simulation evolves, constraints/boundaries
• Take on a role, real life consequences, attempts
  to represent reality
• Many interacting variables, HOTS/Problem solving
• Fidelity

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What are the structures/components of games?
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What are the structures/components of games?

• Competition, conflict, strategy
• 4 Cs Conflict, Control, Closure, Contrivance
  (and Curriculum)
• Rules and winners
• Directions, Procedures
• Reinforcement

• Engagement, fun, entertainment
• Strategy and luck/chance
• Has an end
• Cheating is possible and beneficial
• Goal
• Equipment
• Prior knowledge

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What are the structures/components of simulations?
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What are the structures/components of
simulations?

• Model of real-world situation
• Interacting variables, based on rich database
• Fidelity
• Participants have defined roles
• Ill defined problem or discrepant event

• Evolving situation
• No right or wrong
• Experiential
• May not have a specific end point
• Reinforcement
• Educational or instructional goal/purpose
• Variables increases choice and engagement

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Game Genres

• Edutainment
• FPS
• Action
• Adventure
• Role-Plays and RPGs

• Strategy
• Simulation and Simulation Games
• Microworlds
• Persistent Universes
• MMOG

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Continuum of Development for DGBL
Educational Games (targeted to skills)
Game Engine-based development
COTS
Role Plays
PPT Games
Interactive Multimedia (Flash)
COTS Mini-games
Inhouse
Outsource
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Examining Learning Motivation within DGBL
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Theories of Learning Motivation

• Beyond Behaviorism Edutainment
• Cognitivism (w/Behaviorism)
• Constructivism/Social Constructivism

• Intrinsic Motivation

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9 Events of Instruction(Gagné)

• Gain attention
• Inform learner of objectives
• Recall prior knowledge
• Present material
• Provide guided learning
• Elicit performance
• Assess performance
• Enhance retention transfer

Cognitivism
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Cognitive Developmental Processes(Piaget)

• Backend of Genetic Epistemology
• Assimilation Accommodation
• Equilibration/Disequilibrium

Cognitivism
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Situated Learning(Brown, Collins Duguid)

• Knowledge is situated, being in part a product of
  the activity, context, and culture in which it is
  developed and used.
• Novices are enculturated, where they learn
  cultural conventions, such as language,
  interactions, morals, etc.
• Learning activities are authentic.

Constructivist
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Cognitive Apprenticeship(Collins, Brown Holum)

• Modeling
• Coaching
• Scaffolding
• Articulation
• Reflection
• Exploration

Constructivist
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Anchored Instruction(Bransford CTGC)

• Learning and teaching activities are designed
  around an emotionally compelling anchor that is
  a case study or problem.
• Curriculum materials allow for exploration and
  problem identification.
• Learners take ownership in the learning process.
• Involves complex content, solved through
  interconnectedness of subproblems.
• Problems are presented in a narrative form with
  embedded data.

Constructivist
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Goal-based Scenarios(Schank)

• Target skills have been identified for the
  learners.
• Mission refers to the primary goal that the
  learner pursues within the scenario.
• Mission focus determines the class of task the
  learner will accomplish (i.e., Design, Diagnosis,
  Discovery, Control).
• Cover story refers to the premise designed by the
  instructor under which the mission will be
  pursued.
• Operations are the specific activities (tasks)
  learners will go through to learn the target
  skills in the mission.

Constructivist
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Problem-basedLearning(Barrows Tamblyn Savery
Duffy)

• A closing analysis of what has been learned from
  work with the problem and a discussion of what
  concepts and principles have been learned is
  essential.
• Self and peer assessment should be carried out at
  the completion of each problem and at the end of
  every curricular unit.
• The activities carried out in problem-based
  learning must be those valued in the real world.
• Student examinations must measure student
  progress towards the goals of problem-based
  learning.
• Problem-based learning must be the pedagogical
  base in the curriculum and not part of a didactic
  curriculum.

• Students must have the responsibility for their
  own learning.
• The problem simulations used in problem-based
  learning must be ill-structured and allow for
  free inquiry.
• Learning should be integrated from a wide range
  of disciplines or subjects.
• Collaboration is essential.
• What students learn during their self-directed
  learning must be applied back to the problem with
  reanalysis and resolution.

Constructivist
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Intrinsically Motivating Environments(Malone
Lepper)

• Challenge
• Curiosity
• Fantasy
• Control

Motivation
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6 Cs of Motivation (Turner Paris)

• Choice
• Challenge
• Control
• Collaboration
• Constructing meaning
• Consequences

Motivation
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Flow Theory(Csikszentmihalyi)

• The state in which people are so involved in an
  activity that nothing else seems to matter the
  experience is so enjoyable that people will do it
  even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing
  it.

Motivation
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Assessment in Games
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In Entertainment Games

• Tutorials
• present the player with the basics of how to
  control and interact with the game and then test
  the player on this information with a series of
  levels or missions
• Scoring
• Efforts, performance or decisions are reinforced
  (positive, negative, punishment)
• No score all indicates that the action is
  probably unimportant

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Challenges for DGBL

• Assessment of learning from traditional methods
  may not equal learning from serious games
• Open-ended simulations can support myriad
  possible solutions. Why one is more correct?
• When teaching soft skills such as leadership,
  teamwork management, how do you measure
  learning and/or improvements?
• What is cheating in the context of serious
  games?

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as with All Assessments

• How do you show that the students are learning
  what you claim they are learning?
• How do you know that what you are measuring is
  what you think you are measuring?

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Meeting the Challenges

• Endogenous Assessment
• Completion Assessment
• In-process Assessment

• Exogenous Assessment
• Teacher/Trainer Evaluation
• Transfer
• Constructionist
• Mixed Model Assessment

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Completion Assessment

• Did the student complete the serious game?
• Useful as a first indicator that learner
  sufficiently understands the content.
• Limitations
• Cheating, exploiting flaws
• Unable to determine if student learned content or
  how to beat the game

Endogenous
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In-process Assessment

• Similar to teacher observations
• Makes decision-making transparent
• Emphasizes process with product
• Logging tracking features to instant replay
  performance
• Examples completion time (efficiency), number of
  mistakes number of self-corrections
  (effectivenessself-regulation)

Endogenous
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Trainer Assessment

• Combination of completion assessment in-process
  assessment
• May include debrief or after action review (AAR)
  to deconstruct performance and decision-making
• Games may include tools akin to course management
  systems or LMS (e.g., homework and assignment
  controls, grade tracking, logging/tracking, etc.)
• Requires performance assessments (e.g., rubrics,
  checklists, portfolios) the more data available,
  though, the less subjective

Endogenous
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Transfer

• Follows Kirkpatricks Level 3 evaluation
• Follows the learner back to the actual
  performance environment
• May not always be possible
• Example some simulations are used for unusual or
  uncommon, unsafe experiences
• Limitations
• Cost time

Exogenous
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Constructionist

• Game development as the assessment method
• The only way a designer can make an effective
  game that simulates a particular phenomenon or
  teaches particular information is if the designer
  already understands the content
• Limitations
• Time/cost, approachable tools

Exogenous
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Mixed Model

• Combines endogenous and exogenous assessments
  (e.g., completion, in-process, teacher
  evaluation)
• May include elements of traditional assessments
• May include observer mode for teacher/trainer
  to review performance
• May include debrief or AAR
• Allows the assessment to start pre-game,
  intra-game and post-game

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Questions
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Games from this Summer
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Games from this Summer
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Games from this Summer