cell membrane the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the amoeba it allows some substances - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

1 / 46
About This Presentation
Title:

cell membrane the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the amoeba it allows some substances

Description:

If brain cells do not get oxygen for 3 to 5 minutes, they begin to die. ... spinal cord are covered by a tough, translucent membrane, called the dura matter. ... – PowerPoint PPT presentation

Number of Views:188
Avg rating:3.0/5.0
Slides: 47
Provided by: matts3
Category:

less

Transcript and Presenter's Notes

Title: cell membrane the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the amoeba it allows some substances


1
(No Transcript)
2
Amoeba Anatomy
cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat
that surrounds the amoeba it allows some
substances to pass into the cell, and blocks
other substances.contractile vacuole - a cavity
within the amoeba that excretes excess water and
waste the waste is brought to the cell membrane
and is then eliminated from the amoeba.cytoplasm
- a jelly-like material that fills most of the
cell the organelles (like the nucleus) are
surrounded by cytoplasm.food vacuole - a cavity
within the amoeba in which food is digested
(broken down in order to be absorbed by the
amoeba).food being engulfed by pseudopods - the
amoeba "eats" by surrounding bits of food with
pseudopods that form around the food the amoeba
then incorporates the food into the cell, forming
a food vacuole.nucleus - the major organelle of
the amoeba, located centrally it controls
reproduction (it contains the chromosomes) and
many other important functions (including eating
and growth).pseudopods - temporary "feet" that
the amoeba uses to move around and to engulf food
3
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN The human brain is a
complex organ that allows us to think, move,
feel, see, hear, taste, and smell. It controls
our body, receives information, analyzes
information, and stores information (our
memories). The brain produces electrical
signals, which, together with chemical reactions,
let the parts of the body communicate. Nerves
send these signals throughout the body. SIZE OF
THE HUMAN BRAIN The average human brain weighs
about 3 pounds (1300-1400 g). At birth, the
human brain weighs less than a pound (0.78-0.88
pounds or 350-400 g). As a child grows, the
number of cell remains relatively stable, but the
cells grow in size and the number of connections
increases. The human brain reaches its full size
at about 6 years of age. COMPOSITION OF THE
BRAIN The brain consists of gray matter (40)
and white matter (60) contained within the
skull. Brain cells include neurons and glial
cells. The brain has three main parts the
cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem
(medulla). NOURISHMENT OF THE BRAIN Although
the brain is only 2 of the body's weight, it
uses 20 of the oxygen supply and gets 20 of the
blood flow. Blood vessels (arteries, capillaries,
and veins) supply the brain with oxygen and
nourishment, and take away wastes. If brain cells
do not get oxygen for 3 to 5 minutes, they begin
to die. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) surrounds the
brain. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM The brain and spinal
cord make up the central nervous system (CNS).
The brain is connected to the spinal cord, which
runs from the neck to the hip area. The spinal
cord carries nerve messages between the brain and
the body. The nerves that connect the CNS to the
rest of the body are called the peripheral
nervous system. The autonomic nervous system
controls our life support systems that we don't
consciously control, like breathing, digesting
food, blood circulation, etc. PROTECTION The
cells of the nervous system are quite fragile and
need extensive protection from being crushed,
being infected by disease organisms, and other
harm. The brain and spinal cord are covered by a
tough, translucent membrane, called the dura
matter. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear,
watery liquid that surrounds the brain and spinal
cord, and is also found throughout the ventricle
(brain cavities and tunnels). CSF cushions the
brain and spinal cord from jolts. The cranium
(the top of the skull) surrounds and protects the
brain. The spinal cord is surrounded by vertebrae
(hollow spinal bones). Also, some muscles serve
to pad and support the spine. More subtly, the
blood-brain barrier protects the brain from
chemical intrusion from the rest of the body.
Blood flowing into the brain is filtered so that
many harmful chemicals cannot enter the brain.
4
Digestive System
anus - the opening at the end of the digestive
system from which feces (waste) exits the
body.appendix - a small sac located on the
cecum.ascending colon - the part of the large
intestine that run upwards it is located after
the cecum.cecum - the first part of the large
intestine the appendix is connected to the
cecum.descending colon - the part of the large
intestine that run downwards after the transverse
colon and before the sigmoid colon.duodenum -
the first part of the small intestine it is
C-shaped and runs from the stomach to the
jejunum.esophagus - the long tube between the
mouth and the stomach. It uses rhythmic muscle
movements (called peristalsis) to force food from
the throat into the stomach.gall bladder - a
small, sac-like organ located by the duodenum. It
stores and releases bile (a digestive chemical
which is produced in the liver) into the small
intestine.ileum - the last part of the small
intestine before the large intestine
begins.jejunum - the long, coiled mid-section of
the small intestine it is between the duodenum
and the ileum.liver - a large organ located
above and in front of the stomach. It filters
toxins from the blood, and makes bile (which
breaks down fats) and some blood proteins.mouth
- the first part of the digestive system, where
food enters the body. Chewing and salivary
enzymes in the mouth are the beginning of the
digestive process (breaking down the
food).pancreas - an enzyme-producing gland
located below the stomach and above the
intestines. Enzymes from the pancreas help in the
digestion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in
the small intestine.rectum - the lower part of
the large intestine, where feces are stored
before they are excreted from the body.sigmoid
colon - the part of the large intestine between
the descending colon and the rectum.stomach - a
sack-like, muscular organ that is attached to the
esophagus. When food enters the stomach, it is
churned in an acid bath.transverse colon - the
part of the large intestine that runs
horizontally across the abdomen.
5
(No Transcript)
6
                                               
                                                  
                                                  
            
Sound is collected by the pinna (the visible part
of the ear) and directed through the outer ear
canal. The sound makes the eardrum vibrate, which
in turn causes a series of three tiny bones (the
hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup) in the middle
ear to vibrate. The vibration is transferred to
the snail-shaped cochlea in the inner ear the
cochlea is lined with sensitive hairs which
trigger the generation of nerve signals that are
sent to the brain. On average, people can hear
sounds in the frequencies between 20 to 20,000
Hertz.
anvil - (also called the incus) a tiny bone that
passes vibrations from the hammer to the
stirrup.cochlea - a spiral-shaped, fluid-filled
inner ear structure it is lined with cilia (tiny
hairs) that move when vibrated and cause a nerve
impulse to form.eardrum - (also called the
tympanic membrane) a thin membrane that vibrates
when sound waves reach it.Eustachian tube - a
tube that connects the middle ear to the back of
the nose it equalizes the pressure between the
middle ear and the air outside. When you "pop"
your ears as you change altitude (going up a
mountain or in an airplane), you are equalizing
the air pressure in your middle ear.hammer -
(also called the malleus) a tiny bone that passes
vibrations from the eardrum to the anvil.nerves
- these carry electro-chemical signals from the
inner ear (the cochlea) to the brain.outer ear
canal - the tube through which sound travels to
the eardrum.pinna - (also called the auricle)
the visible part of the outer ear. It collects
sound and directs it into the outer ear
canalsemicircular canals - three loops of
fluid-filled tubes that are attached to the
cochlea in the inner ear. They help us maintain
our sense of balance.stirrup - (also called the
stapes) a tiny, U-shaped bone that passes
vibrations from the stirrup to the cochlea. This
is the smallest bone in the human body (it is
0.25 to 0.33 cm long).
7
anvil - (also called the incus) a tiny bone that
passes vibrations from the hammer to the
stirrup.cochlea - a spiral-shaped, fluid-filled
inner ear structure it is lined with cilia (tiny
hairs) that move when vibrated and cause a nerve
impulse to form.eardrum - (also called the
tympanic membrane) a thin membrane that vibrates
when sound waves reach it.Eustachian tube - a
tube that connects the middle ear to the back of
the nose it equalizes the pressure between the
middle ear and the air outside. When you "pop"
your ears as you change altitude (going up a
mountain or in an airplane), you are equalizing
the air pressure in your middle ear.hammer -
(also called the malleus) a tiny bone that passes
vibrations from the eardrum to the anvil.nerves
- these carry electro-chemical signals from the
inner ear (the cochlea) to the brain.outer ear
canal - the tube through which sound travels to
the eardrum.pinna - (also called the auricle)
the visible part of the outer ear. It collects
sound and directs it into the outer ear
canalsemicircular canals - three loops of
fluid-filled tubes that are attached to the
cochlea in the inner ear. They help us maintain
our sense of balance.stirrup - (also called the
stapes) a tiny, U-shaped bone that passes
vibrations from the stirrup to the cochlea. This
is the smallest bone in the human body (it is
0.25 to 0.33 cm long).
8
The heart is a fist-sized, muscular organ that
pumps blood through the body. Oxygen-poor blood
enters the right atrium of the heart (via veins
called the inferior vena cava and the superior
vena cava). The blood is then pumped into the
right ventricle and then through the pulmonary
artery to the lungs, where the blood is enriched
with oxygen (and loses carbon dioxide). The
oxygen-rich (oxygenated) blood is then carried
back to the left atrium of the heart via the
pulmonary vein. The blood is then pumped to the
left ventricle, then the blood is pumped through
the aorta and to the rest of the body. This cycle
is then repeated. Every day, the heart pumps
about 2,000 gallons (7,600 liters) of blood,
beating about 100,000 times. Note On the
diagram, the right side of the heart appears on
the left side of the picture (and vice versa)
because you are looking at the heart from the
front.
9
(No Transcript)
10
Respiratory System
11
Label the Urinary Tract
12
Label the Skin Anatomy Diagram
blood vessels - Tubes that carry blood as it
circulates. Arteries bring oxygenated blood from
the heart and lungs
veins return oxygen-depleted blood back to the
heart and lungs. dermis - (also called the
cutis) the layer of the skin just beneath the
epidermis. epidermis - the outer layer of the
skin. hair follicle - a tube-shaped sheath that
surrounds the part of the hair that is under the
skin. It is located
in the epidermis and the dermis. The hair is
nourished by the follicle at
its base (this is also where the hair
grows). hair shaft - The part of the hair that
is above the skin. hair erector muscle - a
muscle is connected to each hair follicle and the
skin - it contracts (in
response to cold, fear, etc.), resulting in an
erect hair and a "goosebump." melanocyte - a
cell in the epidermis that produces melanin (a
dark-colored pigment that protects
the skin from sunlight). Pacinian
corpuscle - nerve receptors that respond to
pressure and vibration they are oval
capsules of sensory nerve fibers
located in the subcutaneous fatty
tissue sebaceous gland - a small, sack-shaped
gland that releases oily (fatty) liquids onto the
hair follicle (the oil
lubricated and softens the skin). These glands
are located in the
dermis, usually next to hair follicles. sweat
gland - (also called sudoriferous gland) a
tube-shaped gland that produces perspiration
(sweat). The gland is located
in the epidermis it releases sweat onto the
skin. subcutaneous tissue - fatty tissue located
under the dermis.
13
basal body - A structure that anchors the base of
the flagellum and allows it to rotate. capsule -
A layer on the outside of the cell wall. Most but
not all bacteria have a capsule. cell wall - A
thin membrane located outside the plasma membrane
and within the capsule. DNA - The genetic
material of the bacterium it is located within
the cytoplasm. cytoplasm - The jellylike
material inside the plasma membrane in which the
genetic material and ribosomes are
located. flagellum - A long whip-like structure
used for locomotion (movement). Some bacteria
have more than one flagellum. pili - (singular
is pilus) Hair-like projections that allow
bacterial cells to stick to surfaces and
transfer DNA to one another. plasma
membrane - A permeable membrane located within
the cell wall. It serves many
functions for the cell, including energy
generation and transport of chemicals . ribosome
- Small organelles composed of RNA-rich granules
that are sites of protein synthesis. The
ribosomes are located within the cytoplasm.
14
Anaphase - the phase of mitosis in which the
chromosomes begin to separate. Centrioles -
paired cylindrical organelles, arranged at right
angles to each other, located at the center of a
microtubule. Centromeres - a centromere is the
constricted region of a nuclear chromosome -
microfibers attach to the centromere during
mitosis. Chromosomes - structures in the nucleus
that contain DNA molecules that contain the
genes. Interphase - the phase of a cell's life
cycle in which DNA is replicated. Microtubules -
tiny filaments (about 25 nanometers in diameter)
that are active in mitosis. Metaphase - the
phase of mitosis in which the chromosomes line up
at the equator (the central plane) of the
cell. Prophase - the phase of mitosis in which
the duplicated chromosomes condense, the nuclear
envelope dissolves, and centrioles divide and
move to opposite ends of the cell. Telophase -
the last phase of mitosis, when the chromosomes
migrate to opposite ends of the cell, two new
nuclear envelopes form, and the chromosomes
uncoil. S-phase G1 G2 Cytokenesis- the
splitting of the cell Karyokenesis- the
splitting of the chromodomes Metaphaseplate-Where
sisterchromatids line up along the middle of the
cell during metaphase
15
Some Land (Terrestrial) Biomes
Related Activities
16
Biomes page 2
The Earth has many different environments,
varying in temperature, moisture, light, and many
other factors. Each of these habitats has
distinct life forms living in it, forming complex
communities of interdependent organisms. A
complex community of plants and animals in a
region and a climate is called a biome. Some of
the biomes on Earth include Desert - very dry,
either hot or cold Tundra - cool, treeless, and
dry Chaparral or scrub - coastal area with hot,
dry summers and mild, cool, rainy winters Taiga
or Coniferous Forest - cool and dry, with
coniferous trees Temperate Deciduous Forest -
cool and rainy, with deciduous trees Grassland
- Windy, partly dry sea of grass with few trees,
including tropical savanna,
prairie, steppe, pampas, etc. savanna Mountai
n biomes there are a lot of different
mountainous biomes, from grasslands at low
altitudes, taiga (coniferous forests) below the
treeline, and alpine (the same as tundra)
Temperate Rain Forest - cool and wet Tropical
Rain Forest - warm and very wet Land Caves -
cool and dark Wetlands - many types of
wetlands, including swamps, marshes, moors, bogs,
fens, sloughs, etc. Freshwater Marsh - a
wetland located near creeks, streams, rivers and
lakes Temperate ponds Marine (ocean or sea) -
including euphotic
(sunlit) zone littoral
or intertidal zones coral reef (warm shallow
salt-water environments based on coral
formations) estuarine biomes (where rivers meet
oceans) pelagic biomes (open seas near the
surface) disphotic (twilight) zone midnight
(aphotic) zone benthic biomes (bottom) sea
trenches sea Caves And many more.
17
Taiga
  • A taiga, also called a boreal forest or
    northern coniferous forest, is a cold woodland or
    forest. This biome span the northern parts of
    North America, Europe, and Asia. Taigas are
    generally located south of tundras and north of
    temperate deciduous forests and temperate
    grasslands. The taiga is the largest land biome
    on Earth, covering about 50 million acres of land
    (20 million hectares) this is about 17 of the
    Earth's land area. Taiga is a Russian word for
    marshy pine forest.
  • The taiga is characterized by a cold, harsh
    climate, a low rate of precipitation (snow and
    rain), and short growing season. There are two
    types of taigas open woodlands with widely
    spaced trees, and dense forests whose floor is
    generally in shade.
  • Taigas are relatively low in animal diversity
    because of the harsh winters. Some taiga animals
    are able to cope with the cold winter
    environment, but many migrate south to warmer
    climates during the winter and others go into
    hibernation.

18
A network of many food chains is called a food
web. Trophic Levels The trophic level of an
organism is the position it holds in a food
chain. Primary producers (organisms that make
their own food from sunlight and/or chemical
energy from deep sea vents) are the base of every
food chain - these organisms are called
autotrophs. Primary consumers are animals that
eat primary producers they are also called
herbivores (plant-eaters). Secondary consumers
eat primary consumers. They are carnivores
(meat-eaters) and omnivores (animals that eat
both animals and plants). Tertiary consumers eat
secondary consumers. Quaternary consumers eat
tertiary consumers. Food chains "end" with top
predators, animals that have little or no natural
enemies. When any organism dies, it is
eventually eaten by detrivores (like vultures,
worms and crabs) and broken down by decomposers
(mostly bacteria and fungi), and the exchange of
energy continues. Some organisms' position in
the food chain can vary as their diet differs.
For example, when a bear eats berries, the bear
is functioning as a primary consumer. When a bear
eats a plant-eating rodent, the bear is
functioning as a secondary consumer. When the
bear eats salmon, the bear is functioning as a
tertiary consumer (this is because salmon is a
secondary consumer, since salmon eat herring that
eat zooplankton that eat phytoplankton, that make
their own energy from sunlight). Think about how
people's place in the food chain varies - often
within a single meal.
19
A food chain is the sequence of who eats whom in
a biological community (an ecosystem) to obtain
nutrition. A food chain starts with the primary
energy source, usually the sun or boiling-hot
deep sea vents. The next link in the chain is an
organism that make its own food from the primary
energy source -- an example is photosynthetic
plants that make their own food from sunlight
(using a process called photosynthesis) and
chemosynthetic bacteria that make their food
energy from chemicals in hydrothermal vents.
These are called autotrophs or primary producers.
Next come organisms that eat the autotrophs
these organisms are called herbivores or primary
consumers -- an example is a rabbit that eats
grass. The next link in the chain is animals
that eat herbivores - these are called secondary
consumers -- an example is a snake that eat
rabbits. In turn, these animals are eaten by
larger predators -- an example is an owl that
eats snakes. The tertiary consumers are are
eaten by quaternary consumers -- an example is a
hawk that eats owls. Each food chain end with a
top predator, and animal with no natural enemies
(like an alligator, hawk, or polar bear). The
arrows in a food chain show the flow of energy,
from the sun or hydrothermal vent to a top
predator. As the energy flows from organism to
organism, energy is lost at each step. Numbers
of OrganismsIn any food web, energy is lost
each time one organism eats another. Because of
this, there have to be many more plants than
there are plant-eaters. There are more autotrophs
than heterotrophs, and more plant-eaters than
meat-eaters. Although there is intense
competition between animals, there is also an
interdependence. When one species goes extinct,
it can affect an entire chain of other species
and have unpredictable consequences.
EquilibriumAs the number of carnivores in a
community increases, they eat more and more of
the herbivores, decreasing the herbivore
population. It then becomes harder and harder for
the carnivores to find herbivores to eat, and the
population of carnivores decreases. In this way,
the carnivores and herbivores stay in a
relatively stable equilibrium, each limiting the
other's population. A similar equilibrium exists
between plants and plant-eaters
20
Flower Anatomy
The FlowerThe flower is the reproductive unit
of some plants (angiosperms). Parts of the flower
include petals, sepals, one or more carpels (the
female reproductive organs), and stamens (the
male reproductive organs). The Female
Reproductive OrgansThe pistil is the collective
term for the carpel(s). Each carpel includes an
ovary (where the ovules are produced ovules are
the female reproductive cells, the eggs), a style
(a tube on top of the ovary), and a stigma (which
receives the pollen during fertilization). The
Male Reproductive OrgansStamens are the male
reproductive parts of flowers. A stamen consists
of an anther (which produces pollen) and a
filament. The pollen consists of the male
reproductive cells they fertilize ovules.
FertilizationPollen must fertilize an ovule to
produce a viable seed. This process is called
pollination, and is often aided by animals like
bees, which fly from flower to flower collecting
sweet nectar. As they visit flowers, they spread
pollen around, depositing it on some stigmas.
After a male's pollen grains have landed on the
stigma during fertilization, pollen tubes develop
within the style, burrowing down to the ovary,
where the sperm fertilizes an ovum (an egg cell),
in the ovule. After fertilization, the ovule
develops into a seed in the ovary. Types of
FlowersSome flowers (called perfect flowers)
have both male and female reproductive organs
some flowers (called imperfect flowers) have only
male reproductive organs or only female
reproductive organs. Some plants have both male
and female flowers, while other have males on one
plant and females on another. Complete flowers
have stamens, a pistil, petals, and sepals.
Incomplete flowers lack one of these parts
21
The Seed
embryo - developing plant still inside the seed.
The embryo has cotyledons (embryonic leaves), a
root cap, a food source and a plumule
(shoot). hilum - the scar on a seed coat at the
location where it was attached to the plant's
stalk during development micropyle - the small
pore in a seed that that allows water
absorption root (hypocotyl) - the part of the
stem of a sprouting plant that is above the root
and below the stalk of the cotyledon (seed
leaves) seed coat (testa) - seed coat is the
outer, protective layer covering the seed seed
leaf (cotyledon) - the embryonic leaf within a
seed plumule - the shoot of a embryo
22
Label The Leaf
axil - the angle between the upper side of the
stem and a leaf or petiole. lamina - the blade
of a leaf. leaf apex - the outer end of a leaf
the end that is opposite the petiole. midrib -
the central rib of a leaf - it is usually
continuous with the petiole. petiole - a leaf
stalk it attaches the leaf to the plant. stem -
(also called the axis) the main support of the
plant. stipule - the small, paired appendages
(sometimes leaf-life) that are found at the base
of the petiole of leaves of many flowering
plants. vein - one of the many vascular
structures on a leaf. Veins provide supports for
the leaf and transport both water and food
through the leaf.
23
Fungus / Mushroom
Cap (Pileus) - The top part of the mushroom. Cup
(Volva) - A cup-shaped structure at the base of
the mushroom. The basal cup is the remnant of the
button (the rounded, undeveloped mushroom
before the fruiting body appears). Not all
mushrooms have a cup. Gills (Lamellae) - A
series of radially arranged (from the center)
flat surfaces located on the underside of the
cap. Spores are made in the gills. Mycelial
threads - Root-like filaments that anchor the
mushroom in the soli. Ring (Annulus) - A
skirt-like ring of tissue circling the stem of
mature mushrooms. The ring is the remnant of
the veil (the veil is the tissue that connects
the stem and the cap before the gills are
exposed and the fruiting body develops ). Not all
mushrooms have a ring. Scales - Rough patches of
tissue on the surface of the cap (scales are
remnants of the veil). Stem (Stape) - The main
support of the mushroom it is topped by the cap.
Not all mushrooms have a stem.
24
Label The Plant
axil - the angle between the upper side of the
stem and a leaf, branch, or petiole.axillary bud
- a bud that develops in the axil.flower - the
reproductive unit of angiosperms.flower stalk -
the structure that supports the flower.internode
- the area of the stem between any two adjacent
nodes.lateral shoot (branch) - an offshoot of
the stem of a plant.leaf - an outgrowth of a
plant that grows from a node in the stem. Most
leaves are flat and contain chloroplasts their
main function is to convert energy from sunlight
into chemical energy (food) through
photosynthesis.node - the part of the stem of a
plant from which a leaf, branch, or aerial root
grows each plant has many nodes. Label the two
lower nodes (the first and second nodes) on the
plant diagram.petiole - a leaf stalk it
attaches the leaf to the plant.root - a root is
a plant structure that obtains food and water
from the soil, stores energy, and provides
support for the plant. Most roots grow
underground.root cap - a structure at the ends
(tips) of the roots. It covers and protects the
apical meristem (the actively growing region) of
the root.stem - (also called the axis) is the
main support of the plant.tap root - the main
root of some plants the tap root extends
straight down under the plant.terminal bud - a
bud located at the apex (tip) of the stem.
Terminal buds have special tissue, called apical
meristem, consisting of cells that can divide
indefinitely.
25
cotyledon - (also called seed leaves) the
embryonic leaf within a seed. Dicots (plants like
the bean plant above) have two
cotyledons. first true leaves - the first two
leaves of the plant that emerge from the
cotyledon. These leaves are the first to begin
the process of photosynthesis. hypocotyl - the
part of the stem of a sprouting plant that is
above the roots and below the stalk of the
cotyledons. primary root - the main, thick part
of the root (and the first part to
grow). secondary root - small roots that grow
from the primary root seed coat - the outer,
protective layer that covers the seed. It is shed
after the bean sprouts.

26
Tree Anatomy
cambium - a single layer of living cells in the
trunk that is located between the sapwood and the
inner bark. The cambium produces the sapwood (on
the inside of the cambium) and the inner bark (on
the outside of the cambium). canopy of leaves -
the upper parts of the tree, where the branches
and leaves are located. heartwood - the core of
the trunk, which contains very strong, dead
tissue that supports the tree. inner bark
(phloem) - the layer of the trunk through which
the tree's food flows - it is located between the
outer bark and the cambium. When this short-lived
layer dies, it is called cork. outer bark - the
protective outer layer of the trunk. roots -
structures that obtain food and water from the
soil, store energy, and provide support for the
plant. Most roots grow underground. sapwood -
the layers of wood just outside the heartwood.
Each year a new layer of wood is formed (by
cambium tissue), forming an annual ring. Sap
(containing water and some nutrients) is
transported in this layer. Older, inner rings of
sapwood eventually become heartwood. You can tell
the age of a tree by counting its annual
rings. branches - woody parts of the tree that
grow from the trunk.trunk - the main support of
the tree.
27
Name The Class
                                                
                                                  
                                                  
                Ocean Animals
28
eyespots - located at the tips of the long
tentacles on land snails foot - the soft,
muscular part of the snail that allows the snail
to move shell - the hard, spiral, protective
covering of the snail head - the front part of
the snail, containing the tentacles, eyes, and
mouth mouth - on the underside of the head -
it contains the radula, a file- like tongue that
breaks down the snail's food respiratory pore -
a small hole in the side of the body, used for
breathing tentacles - two long and two short
sensory tentacles on the upper surface of the
snail's head
29
Using the definitions listed below, label the
sponge and the flow of water through it.
epidermis - the layer of cells that covers the
outer surface of the sponge. The thin, flattened
cells of the epidermis are called
pinacocytes.holdfast - root-like tendrils that
attach the sponge to rocks.osculum - the large
openings in a sponge through which water flows
out of the sponge. Sponges may have more than one
oscula.water flows in - water flows into a
sponge through pores (holes) located all over its
body. The sponge obtains its nutrients and oxygen
by processing this flowing water.water flows out
- water flows out of a sponge through large
openings called oscula.
30
Label the Nasty Spider
abdomen - the belly, also called the opisthosoma.
It contains the guts, heart, reproductive organs,
and silk glands. cephalothorax - the fused head
and thorax, also called the prosoma. It contains
the brain, jaws, eyes, stomach, and leg
attachments. eyes - tiny eyes (also called
ocelli) that can only detect light and dark -
they are located on top of the spider's
cephalothorax. Most species of spiders have 8
eyes, but other species have 12, 6, 4, 2 or no
eyes. jaws - also called chelicera, they are
located below the eyes. The jaws are tipped with
fangs that can inject poison. leg - spiders
have 8 legs. Each leg is made of seven segments
and has 2 or 3 tiny claws at the tip. If a leg is
lost, it will grow back. pedicel - the spider's
waist - it connects the cephalothorax and the
abdomen. pedipalps - also called palps, these
two sensory feelers look like very short legs
attached to the front of the spider - they taste
food. spinnerets - where the spider's silk is
released - they are located at the tip of the
abdomen.
31
Porifera / Sponges
archaeocyte (amoebocyte) - Cells with pseudopods,
located in the mesohyl. They are used in
processing food, distributing it to other cells,
and for other functions. choanocyte - also
called the collar cell, thse cells line the inner
cavity of the sponge and have a flagellum. The
sponge obtains its nutrients and oxygen by
processing flowing water using choanocytes. epide
rmis (pinacocyte) - the epidermis is the layer of
cells that covers the outer surface of the
sponge. The thin, flattened cells of the
epidermis are called pinacocytes. flagellum -
the whip-like structure of a choanocyte the
flagellum moves, pushing water (which contains
nourishment) through the sponge. mesohyl
(mesenchyme) - the gelatinous layer between the
outer body of the sponge and the spongocoel (the
inner cavity). spicule - spicules are sharp
spikes (made of calcium carbonate) located in the
mesohyl. Spicules form the "skeleton" of many
sponges. spongocoel - the central, open cavity
in a sponge through which water flows. water
flows in through porocytes - water flows into a
sponge through cells with pores (these cells are
called porocytes) located all over its
body. water flows out through the osculum -
water flows out of a sponge through large
openings called oscula (plural).
32
Label the Class
33
Insect Anatomy
Head - The head is the part of the insect that
contains the brain, two compound eyes, the
proboscis, and the pharynx (the start of the
digestive system). The two antennae are attached
to the head. Leg - All adult insects have six
legs. Thorax - The thorax is the body section
between the head and the abdomen. The legs attach
to the thorax. Abdomen - The abdomen is the
segmented tail area of an insect that contains
the heart, Malpighian tubules, reproductive
organs, and most of the digestive system.
Antenna - An antenna is a sensory appendage that
is attached to the head of adult insects.
Antennae are used for the sense of smell and
balance. Insects have two antennae. Compound Eye
- Insect compound eyes are made up of many
hexagonal lenses.
34
Label the Grasshopper Anatomy Diagram
abdomen - the segmented tail area of a
grasshopper, which contains the heart,
reproductive organs, and most of the digestive
systemantennae - like all insects, grasshoppers
have 2 segmented antennae that sense touch and
odorscompound eye - grasshoppers have 2 faceted
eyes made up of many hexagonal lenseshead - the
head is at the front end of the grasshopper's
body and is the location of the brain, the two
compound eyes, the mouth parts, and the points of
attachment of its two antennae.jumping legs -the
long, hindmost pair of the grasshopper's six
legsmandibles - the jaws, located near the tip
of the head, by the palps the jaws crush the
foodpalps - long, segmented mouth parts (under
the jaws) that grasp the foodspiracles - a
series of holes located along both sides of the
abdomen they are used for breathingthorax - the
middle area of the grasshopper's body - where the
legs and wings are attachedwalking legs - the
four, short front legs that are used for
walkingwings - grasshoppers have two long wings,
used for flying.
35
Read the definitions, then label the fish diagram
below. (Note not all fish have all of the fins
defined below.)
anal fin - the fin on the lower side of the body
near the tail caudal fin - the tail fin dorsal
fin - the fin on the upper side of the body eye
- sight organs located on the head gills -
fleshy organs that are used for breathing - they
are located on the side of the head lateral line
- a series of sensory pores (small openings) that
are located along the sides of fish - they sense
vibrations in the water mouth - the part of the
body which the fish uses to catch food - it is
located at the front of the body pectoral fin -
each of the paired fins on either side of the
body, near the head pelvic fin - each of the
paired fins on the lower side of the body, near
the head Class Osteichthyes bony fishes
36
Major Glands
Major endocrine glands. (Male left, female on the
right.) 1. Pineal gland 2. Pituitary gland 3.
Thyroid gland 4. Thymus 5. Adrenal gland 6.
Pancreas 7. Ovary 8. Testis
37
Glands and Hormones
Hypothalamus produces Thyrotropin-releasing
hormone (TRH) Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH) Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
Somatostatin (SS also GHIH, growth
factor-inhibiting hormone) Dopamine (DA)
Pineal Gland produces Dimethyltryptamine
Melatonin Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
produces Anterior pituitary lobe
(adenohypophysis) Growth hormone (GH) Prolactin
(PRL) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH,
corticotropin) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH,
thyrotropin) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH,
a gonadotropin) Luteinizing hormone (LH, a
gonadotropin) Posterior pituitary lobe
(neurohypophysis) Oxytocin (ocytocin) Arginine
vasopressin (AVP also ADH, antidiuretic hormone)
Lipotropin Thyroid gland produces
Triiodothyronine (T3), the potent form of
thyroid hormone Thyroxine (T4), a less active
form of thyroid hormone Calcitonin Parathyroid
gland produces Parathyroid hormone (PTH) Heart
produces Atrial-natriuretic peptide (ANP)
Stomach and intestines produce Cholecystokinin
(CCK) Gastrin Ghrelin Neuropeptide Y (NPY)
Secretin Somatostatin
Liver produces Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)
Angiotensinogen Thrombopoietin Islets of
Langerhans in the pancreas produce Insulin
Glucagon Somatostatin Adrenal glands produce
Adrenal cortex Glucocorticoids (chiefly
cortisol) Mineralocorticoids (chiefly
aldosterone) Androgens (including DHEA and
testosterone) Adrenal medulla Adrenaline
(epinephrine) Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
Testosterone Kidney produces Renin
Erythropoietin (EPO) Calcitriol (the active
form of vitamin D3) Skin produces Vitamin D3
(calciferol) Adipose tissue Leptin Estrogens
(mainly estrone) In males only Testes
Androgens (chiefly testosterone) In females
only Ovarian follicle Estrogens (mainly
estradiol) Corpus luteum Progesterone
Estrogens (mainly estradiol) Placenta (when
pregnant) Progesterone Estrogens (mainly
estriol) Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
Human placental lactogen (HPL)
38
Immune System
It detects pathogens ranging from viruses to
parasitic worms and distinguishes them from the
organism's normal cells and tissues. Detection is
complicated as pathogens adapt and evolve new
ways to successfully infect the host organism. To
survive this challenge, several mechanisms have
evolved that recognize and neutralize pathogens.
Even simple unicellular organisms such as
bacteria possess enzyme systems that protect
against viral infections. Other basic immune
mechanisms evolved in ancient eukaryotes and
remain in their modern descendants, such as
plants, fish, reptiles, and insects. These
mechanisms include antimicrobial peptides called
defensins, pattern recognition receptors, and the
complement system. More sophisticated mechanisms,
however, developed relatively recently, with the
evolution of vertebrates.1 The immune systems
of vertebrates such as humans consist of many
types of proteins, cells, organs, and tissues,
which interact in an elaborate and dynamic
network. As part of this more complex immune
response, the vertebrate system adapts over time
to recognize particular pathogens more
efficiently. The adaptation process creates
immunological memories and allows even more
effective protection during future encounters
with these pathogens. This process of acquired
immunity is the basis of vaccination. Disorders
in the immune system can cause disease.
Immunodeficiency diseases occur when the immune
system is less active than normal, resulting in
recurring and life-threatening infections.
Immunodeficiency can either be the result of a
genetic disease, such as severe combined
immunodeficiency, or be produced by
pharmaceuticals or an infection, such as the
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) that
is caused by the retrovirus HIV. In contrast,
autoimmune diseases result from a hyperactive
immune system attacking normal tissues as if they
were foreign organisms. Common autoimmune
diseases include rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes
mellitus type 1 and lupus erythematosus. These
critical roles of immunology in human health and
disease are areas of intense scientific study.
39
  
A scanning electron microscope image of a single
neutrophil (yellow), engulfing anthrax bacteria
(orange).
40
  • Autosomal the gene responsible for the phenotype
    is located on one of the 22 pairs of autosomes
    (non-sex determining chromosomes).
  • X-linked the gene that encodes for the trait is
    located on the X chromosome.
  • Dominant conditions that are manifest in
    heterozygotes (individuals with just one copy of
    the mutant allele).
  • Recessive conditions are only manifest in
    individuals who have two copies of the mutant
    allele (are homozygous).

Autosomal Dominant            Dominant conditions
are expressed in individuals who have just one
copy of the mutant allele. The pedigree on the
right illustrates the transmission of an
autosomal dominant trait. Affected males and
females have an equal probability of passing on
the trait to offspring. Affected individual's
have one normal copy of the gene and one mutant
copy of the gene, thus each offspring has a 50
chance on inheriting the mutant allele. As shown
in this pedigree, approximately half of the
children of affected parents inherit the
condition and half do not.
Autosomal Dominant Conditions   Huntington
Disease   acondroplasia (short-limbed
dwarfism)   polycystic kidney disease
41
Autosomal Recessive            Recessive
conditions are clinically manifest only when an
individual has two copies of the mutant allele.
When just one copy of the mutant allele is
present, an individual is a carrier of the
mutation, but does not develop the condition.
Females and males are affected equally by traits
transmitted by autosomal recessive inheritance.
When two carriers mate, each child has a 25
chance of being homozygous wild-type
(unaffected) a 25 chance of being homozygous
mutant (affected) or a 50 chance of being
heterozygous (unaffected carrier).
Affected individuals are indicated by solid
black symbols and unaffected carriers are
indicated by the half black symbols. Autosomal
recessive diseases   Cystic fibrosis   Tay-Sa
chs   hemochromatosis   phenylketonuria (PKU)
X-linked Recessive            X-linked recessive
traits are not clinically manifest when there is
a normal copy of the gene. All X-linked recessive
traits are fully evident in males because they
only have one copy of the X chromosome, thus do
not have a normal copy of the gene to compensate
for the mutant copy. For that same reason, women
are rarely affected by X-linked recessive
diseases, however they are affected when they
have two copies of the mutant allele. Because the
gene is on the X chromosome there is no father to
son transmission, but there is father to daughter
and mother to daughter and son transmission. If a
man is affected with an X-linked recessive
condition, all his daughter will inherit one copy
of the mutant allele from him.
X-linked Recessive Disorders   Duchenne
muscular dystrophy   hemophilia A   X-linked
severe combined immune disorder (SCID)   some
forms of congenital deafness
42
X-linked Dominant
X-linked Dominant Disorders   some forms of
retinitis pigmentosa   Chondrodysplasia
Punctata   hypophosphatemic rickets
Autosomal Dominant Conditions   Huntington
Disease   acondroplasia (short-limbed
dwarfism)   polycystic kidney disease
Affected individuals are indicated by solid
black symbols and unaffected carriers are
indicated by the half black symbols. Autosomal
recessive diseases   Cystic fibrosis   Tay-Sa
chs   hemochromatosis   phenylketonuria (PKU)
X-linked Recessive Disorders   Duchenne
muscular dystrophy   hemophilia A   X-linked
severe combined immune disorder (SCID)   some
forms of congenital deafness
43
A typical pedigree from a family with a mutation
in the BRCA1 gene. Fathers can be carriers and
pass the mutation onto offspring. Not all people
who inherit the mutation develop the disease,
thus patterns of transmission are not always
obvious.
Conditions with multifactorial inheritance
   Alzheimers disease   heart
disease   some cancers   neural tube
defects   schizophrenia   insulin-dependent
diabetes mellitus   intelligence
44
(No Transcript)
45
(No Transcript)
46
(No Transcript)
Write a Comment
User Comments (0)
About PowerShow.com