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WORLD ENGLISHES

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Title: WORLD ENGLISHES


1
WORLD ENGLISHES
  • IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION
  • AND
  • ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
  • Andy Kirkpatrick
  • 2007

2
Englishes
  • Native varieties traditional varieties of
    British, American, and Australian English
  • Nativised varieties newer varieties influenced
    by local languages and cultures in places where
    English was not originally spoken (accultured,
    and indigenised)
  • Lingua franca common language used by people of
    different language backgrounds to communicate
    with each other

3
Native Variety Criteria
  • Existing longer than nativised varieties
  • Influential to younger varieties
  • Spoken by white (prejudice)
  • Superior to nativised varieties (prejudice)
  • Note By these definitions and criteria, a
    nativised, accultured, and indigenised variety of
    English spoken by an identifiable community is
    nativised.

4
Native vs Non-native Speakers
  • It no longer makes any sense to differentiate
    between native and non-native speakers
  • The linguistic ability of the near-native speaker
    is indistinguishable from the linguistic ability
    of the native speaker.
  • A native-speaking speaker of English from England
    may lack communicative competence in Australia a
    native speaker of English who has lived in the
    south of England may lack communicative
    competence in the North of England An English
    speaker brought up in London will not know the
    linguistic rules of the Australian variety of
    English.
  • Many varieties of considered nativised Englishes
    may be mutually unintelligible, especially if the
    motivation of the speaker is to highlight his or
    her identity.

5
(continuation)
  • The terms should be avoided
  • Use L1 in terms of the language that is spoken
    best, not the language that is first learned.
  • Use expert user (Rampton, 1990), but it should
    be assigned to different categories because an
    expert speaker may not be an expert writer.
  • Use successful L2 learners (Cook, 1999) rather
    than native speakers for models for the L2
    learner.

6
Linguistic Prejudice Preference
  • People who speak with RP are more intelligent or
    competent than those who speak in different,
    regional accents.
  • Other speakers, who speak with accents similar to
    their own, no matter whether these are urban or
    rural speakers, are considered warmer and more
    honest.
  • Some prefer British English, some prefer American
    English.
  • NOTE If we think that one accent somehow sounds
    more or less intelligent than others, we are
    linguistically prejudiced.

7
Key Linguistic Terms
  • Phonology and pronunciation
  • Different pronunciation in vowel, insertion of
    schwa sound in consonant cluster, and deletion of
    consonant sounds at the end of clusters poor,
    main, mine, bath, skyscrapers, film, known,
    worked, books
  • Stress-timed vs syllable-timed pronunciation
    speakers of syllable-timed languages will develop
    Englishes that are characterized by syllable
    timing.
  • Word stress photographer

8
(continuation)
  • Vocabulary
  • A word in one variety of English may have a
    different meaning in another variety bush,
    alphabet, pollie (politician), journo
    (journalist), reffo (refugee)
  • Different varieties may have words unique to
    them kangaroo, boomerang, sarong, laksa, kiasu,
    kimono, karaoke, sake
  • Morphology and syntax
  • The use of tenses across varieties Have you
    bought the car yet? (British) vs Did you buy the
    car yet? (American) Im knowing very well
    (Indian) vs I know very well (British)

9
(continuation)
  • Cultural Conventions and schemas
  • Differences in cultural conventions that may
    cause a sense of discomfort or pragmatic
    dissonance (Li, 2002)
  • BrE How are you? Fine, thanks.
  • AmE How are you doing? Great (thanks).
  • AusE How are you going? Good, thanks. / (By
    bus.)
  • AsE Where are you going? (Greeting?)
  • Have you eaten? (Greeting?)
  • The use of first name in AusE academic context
    vs. the use of title and family name in AmE.
  • Differences in cultural conventions may cause
    misunderstanding
  • Ch PC My mother is not well, sir. Could I take
    a day off please?
  • Br Expat PO So? Why?
  • Ch PC She has to go into hospital. My mother is
    not well
  • Br Expat PO Well?
  • Ch PC On Thursday, sir.
  • Englishes are influenced by their speakers
    cultural and linguistic backgrounds and reflect
    the speakers cultural conventions and norms that
    are mirrored in the schemas they use.

10
Models of World Englishes
  • Classifications
  • ENL, English as a Native Language English is the
    primary language of the great majority of the
    population (Aus, Can, NZ, the UK, the USA).
  • ESL, English as a Second Language English is an
    important and usually official language, but not
    the main language of the country, which typically
    ex-colony of the UK or the USA (Nigeria, India,
    Malaysia, the Philippines).
  • EFL, English as a Foreign Language English is
    not actually used or spoken very much in the
    normal course of daily life, but is learned at
    school (China, Indonesia, Japan, countries in the
    Middle East).

11
(continuation)
  • Shortcomings
  • ENL is innately superior to ESL and EFL varieties
    and so it represents a good model of English for
    those in ESL and EFL countries to follow. In
    fact, in ENL countries, not all of the people
    speak the same standard model, and there are
    many different varieties of English.
  • Using ENL as the model ignores the fact that
    such a model might be inappropriate in ESL
    countries where the local variety would be a more
    acceptable model as there are more fluent
    speakers and expert users of the variety.

12
(continuation)
  • Classifications by Kachru (1985), using
    concentric circle
  • Inner Circle refers to the traditional cultural
    and linguistic bases of English
  • Outer Circle represents the institutional
    non-native varieties in the regions that have
    passed through extended periods of colonisation
  • Expanding Circle refers to the English varieties
    in essentially EFL contexts
  • Conclusion
  • One English has become many Englishes.
  • The spread of English has resulted in the
    development of many Englishes, not the
    transplanting of one model to other countries.
  • The type of colony a nation was influenced the
    way English developed there (Mufwane, 2001)
  • ? trade colonies European and local traders
    used non-standard English that led to the
    development of pidgins.
  • ? exploitation colonies (India, malaysia,
    Burma) To ensure administrative and political
    control, the colonisers imported administrators
    from other colonies (India for Burmese) and
    trained locals. This training necessitated the
    establishment of schools where English was used
    as an instructional medium. Varieties developed
    within this type of contexts through the contact
    with local and other languages and through
    contact with non-standard and school varieties
    of English.
  • ? settlement colonies (Aus NE) the
    settlers themselves became the administrators, so
    the local languages, which provided a range of
    culturally and geographically specific vocabulary
    items, had relatively small influence on the
    Englishes of the settlers.
  • The Kachrus model underestimated the roles that
    English would come to play in EC countries
    although the term EC suggests development. For
    example the role of English in Chinathe number
    of people learning English there (some schools
    and universities use English as the instructional
    medium) is now greater than the combined
    populations of the inner circle countries. In
    addition, English is becoming the lingua franca
    of business and trade, as well as in computer
    mediated communication in China.

13
More terms
  • Exonormative model the model originates from
    outside the place where it is spoken
  • Transported/ imported variety a variety spoken
    by the settlers
  • Nativised/ indiginised/ accultured variety a
    variety spoken by the locals
  • Endonormative model a locally grown variety
  • Nativisation/ indigenisation / a combination of
    deculturation (the loosing of its original
    cultural roots) and acculturation (the developing
    of new cultural roots) the process through
    which an imported variety goes on its way to
    becoming a local variety

14
The developmental phases of non-native varieties
  • By Kachru (1992)
  • Non-recognition of the local variety. Its
    speakers are prejudiced against it and believe
    that some imported native speaker variety is
    superior and should be the model for language
    learning in schools.
  • The co-existence of local and imported varieties.
    The local variety is used in a wide number of
    situations and a wide range of purposes but still
    considered inferior to the imported model.
  • Recognition of the local variety. It is
    recognized as the norm and socially accepted,
    becoming the model for language learning in
    schools. Local people continuing to speak the
    imported variety can be seen as outsiders or
    behaving unnaturally in some way.

15
(continuation)
  • By Moag (1992)
  • Transportation the phase when English arrives in
    the place where it has not been spoken and
    remains to stay
  • Indigenization the long period during which the
    new variety starts to reflect the local culture
    and becomes different from the transported one
  • Expansion in use the phase in which the new
    variety is used in an increasing number of
    situations and for more and more purposes
  • Institutionalisation the process marked by the
    use of the local variety as a language learning
    model in school, by the writing of local
    literature in the new variety, and by the
    appearance of the internal or local variations
  • Decline in use the stage in which the increased
    official promotion of the local language (Tagalog
    in the Philippines and Malay in Malaysia) results
    in a decline in the use of the local variety of
    Englishthough no evidence of the death of the
    local variety

16
(continuation)
  • By Schneider ((2003)
  • Foundation, when English begins to be used in a
    country where it was not spoken because of the
    settlers
  • Exonormative stabilization, when the variety
    spoken is modeled on the variety spoken by the
    settlers
  • Nativisation, the most important and dynamic
    phase, when a new identity is established
  • Endonormative stabilization, when the new variety
    becomes gradually accepted as the local norm or
    model
  • Differentiation, when the new variety has
    emerged, reflecting local identity and culture
    and when more local varieties develop as markers
    of ethnic identity

17
The debate continues
  • English as an International Language or World
    Englishes?
  • The spread of English centers Is it due to
    imperialism / linguistic imperialism / linguicism
    (Philipsons, 1992) or is it due to genuine desire
    of people to learn English because it has become
    so useful and because it can be adapted to suit
    the cultural norms of the people who speak it?

18
(continuation)
  • Imperialism as the cause
  • British, to a greater extent, American English,
    that is being spread across the world. It brings
    with them the Anglo-cultural norms.
  • The British govt sees great advantage in the
    spread of English (through British Councels,
    which have established language schools to give
    access to British culture), esp. in
    post-communist countries of Eastern Europe and in
    countries such as China.
  • Certain varieties are considered superior in a
    range of international context. Academic
    publications in the US and UK favor articles
    written in Anglo varieties and follow Anglo
    rhetorical style.
  • People need to learn English as it is the
    international language.

19
(continuation)
  • Sought actively by people throughout the world
  • The development of English varieties show that
    English can be adapted by its speakers to reflect
    their cultural norms and ways of thinking.
  • Many non-Anglo or non-Western ways of thinking
    have received international attention through
    English (Chinese culture, traditional medicine,
    the art of war by Sun Zi, and the tenets of
    Confucianism).

20
IMPLICATIONS for ELTChoosing an exonormative
native speaker model
  • The choice which have been made by the most OC
    and probably all EC countries because
  • The model has prestige and legitimacy. It has
    been codified (having available grammars and
    dictionaries, learning can be tested and
    evaluated against codified norms and standards).
  • The learning materials are readily available.
  • Ministries of Education are keen to be providing
    the best for their people, claiming to be
    upholding standards.

21
IMPLICATIONS for ELTChoosing an exonormative
native speaker model
  • Advantages
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