If we know anything, it is because we stand on the backs of Giants

1
If we know anything, it is because we stand on
the backs of Giants!

• Origins of todays Curriculum, Instruction and
  Assessment

2
Lao-Tse (also Lao-tzu)

• In the 5th-century BC, this philosopher wrote
• "If you tell me, I will listen.
• If you show me, I will see.
• But if you let me experience, I will learn."

3
Socrates (470-399BC)

• In 300 BC, he engaged his learners by asking
  questions (know as the Socratic or dialectic
  method).
• He often insisted that he really knew nothing,
  but his questioning skills allowed others to
  learn by self-generated understanding.

4
Plato (428-348 BC),

• A student of Socrates and the teacher of
  Aristotle, he wrote down the Dialogues, which
  have inspired thinkers for more than two thousand
  years. Plato called this process the dialectic,
  and considered it the pinnacle of learning..

5

• Plato founded what is said to be the first
  university - his Academy (near Athens) around 385
  BC.

6

• Along with many others in his time, Aristotle
  (384-322 BC) placed a strong emphasis on an
  all-round and balanced development.

7
techne

• Although we often view the term technology as
  hardware items, it is actually a system of
  practical knowledge. Technology is derived from
  the ancient Greek word techne.

8

• Education for work had its beginning in about
  2000 B.C. organized apprenticeship for scribes
  in Egypt.

9
Code of Hammurabi

• The rules for governing apprenticeships were
  included in the Code of Hammurabi, who placed a
  code of his laws in the temple of Shamash in 2100
  B.C.

10

• Guilds, associations of people who interests or
  pursuits were the same or similar, were an
  important part in apprenticeship as they
  established the quality standards for the product
  and practice.

11
Apprenticeship

• In the centuries that preceded the introduction
  of machine-made parts, craftsmanship of high
  order was required to manufacture accurate,
  durable clocks and watches

12

• When schools became organized around the 10th
  century, the writings and methods of the great
  teachers, such as Socrates and Lao-Tse, were
  forgotten, and teaching was performed by
  transmitting content from teacher to students.

13

• Today, the term has taken on new meaning. Now,
  with many schools using active inquiry
  techniques, the term "pedagogy" does not really
  apply to passive methods. In fact, it now closely
  resembles the term "andragogy," except it is used
  to refer to children.

14
Early Schools and Pedagogy

• Education may be thought of as the transmission
  of the values and accumulated knowledge of a
  society. In this sense, it is equivalent to what
  social scientists term socialization or
  enculturation.

15

• When adult learning became systematized early in
  this century, pedagology was the only known means
  to train.
• Two books written in the 1920s began to change
  the term "adult learning" - Thorndike's Adult
  Learning and Lindeman's The Meaning of Adult
  Education

16
In pedagogy, development is based upon a content
plan

• What content needs to be covered?
• How can this content be organized into manageable
  units or modules?
• How can this content be transmitted in a logical
  sequence?
• What would be the most effective method for
  transmitting this content (media)?

17
In andragogy, development is based upon a process
design

• Design and manage a process for facilitating the
  acquisition of content by
  the learners.
• Serve as a content resource and provide leads for
  other content resources (e.g. peers, supervisors,
  specialists).

18

• In pedagogy, the concern is with transmitting
  the content, while in andragogy, the concern is
  with facilitating the acquisition of the content.

19
John Comenius Latin Name (Jan Komensky)
(1592-1670)

• Czech educational reformer and religious leader,
  born in Moravia (now part of the Czech Republic),
  and educated at the University of Heidelberg.
  In 1638 he was invited by Sweden to assist in
  educational reforms.

20

• In the mid 17th century, Comenius created a new
  educational philosophy called
  Pansophism, or universal knowledge, designed to
  bring about worldwide understanding and peace

21
John Locke

• An English philosopher, set out the principles of
  empiricism. He advanced
  the hypothesis that people learn primarily from
  external forces. Locke
  examined how people acquire ideas in
• An Essay Concerning Human
  Understanding (1690).

22

• Locke believed that individuals acquire knowledge
  most easily when they first
  consider simple ideas and then gradually
  combine them into more complex ones.

23

• While John Locke developed a theory of testing
  for the validity of knowledge and
  John Comenius established that children
  learn better from experience, who supported these
  educational approaches?

24
Jean Jacques Rousseau

• His Social Contract is a classic defense of the
  democratic form of government.
  Rousseau trusted the "general will" of a
  democratic people, as expressed by a vote of the
  majority, to make all important decisions.

25
Jean Jacques Rousseau

• Rousseau's unconventional views antagonized
  French and Swiss authorities and alienated many
  of his friends, and in 1762 he fled first to
  Prussia and then to England.
• There, he was befriended by the Scottish
  philosopher David Hume, but they soon quarreled
  and denounced each other in public letters.

26
Jean Jacques Rousseau

• He wrote the influential Emile (1762). Rousseau
  expounded a new theory of education emphasizing
  the importance of expression rather than
  repression to produce a well-balanced,
  freethinking child.

27
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

• Pestalozzi theories laid the groundwork for
  modern elementary education.
• He stressed the individuality of the child and
  the necessity for teachers to be taught how to
  develop rather than to try to implant knowledge.

28
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

• In the late 1700's he put Rousseau's theories
  into practice and thus became the first applied
  educational psychologist.

29

• Pestalozzi developed a so-called "object lesson"
  that involved exercises in learning form,
  number, and language.
• Pupils determined and traced an object's form,
  counted objects, and named them.
• Students progressed from these lessons to
  exercises in drawing, writing, adding,
  subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and reading.

30

• He employed the following principles in teaching
  (viewed as correct even today)
• (1) begin with the concrete object before
  introducing abstract concepts
• (2) begin with the immediate environment before
  dealing with what is distant and remote
• (3) begin with easy exercises before introducing
  complex ones and
• (4) always proceed gradually, cumulatively, and
  slowly

31
Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841)

• German philosopher, psychologist, and
• educator Johann Friedrich Herbart
• is acknowledged as the "father of
• scientific pedagogy".

32

• Herbart was the first scientist to distinguish
  instructional process from subject matter.
• According to Herbart, interest develops when
  already strong and vivid ideas are
  hospitable towards new ones, thus past
  associations motivate apperception of current
  ones.

33

• He also stressed the study of the psychological
  processes of learning as a means of devising
  educational programs based on the aptitudes,
  abilities, and interests of students.

34

• Herbart stressed the study of the psychological
  processes of learning as a means of devising
  educational programs based on the aptitudes,
  abilities, and interests of students.

35
Herbart's five-step teaching method

• 1. Prepare the pupils to be ready for the new
  lesson.
• 2. Present the new lesson.
• 3. Associate the new lesson with ideas studied
  earlier.
• 4. Use examples to illustrate the lesson's major
  points.
• 5. Test pupils to ensure they had learned the
  new lesson.

36
Lyceum

• The largest early adult education program in the
  U.S., the Lyceum, founded in Massachusetts in
  1826 by Josiah Holbrook
• It was a local association of men and women with
  some schooling who wanted to expand their own
  education while working to establish a public
  school system.

37

• In the early 1800s, factory schools were created,
  due to the industrial revolution, in which
  workers were trained in classrooms within the
  factory walls.

38
Vestibule Training

• Towards the end of the 1800s, a method that
  combined the benefits of the
  classroom with the benefits of on-the-job
  training, called vestibule training,
  became a popular form of training

(near-the-job) training, so called as it
offers access to something new (learning).
39
Vestibule Training

• There are many advantages of vestibule training.
• The workers are trained as if on the job, but it
  did not interfere with the more vital task of
  production.
• Transfer of skills and knowledge to the workplace
  was not required since the
  classroom was a model of the working
  environment.
• Classes were small so that the learners received
  immediate feedback and could ask questions more
  easily.

40
Case Method (Case Study)

• Although the case method does not actually
  provide real experiences, it is personal as it
  puts the burden of thinking on the learners and
  arouses their interest by making them active
  participants.

41
Case Studies

• In the 1880s, Christopher Langdell, the dean of
  the Harvard Law School, revived the case method
  that the early Chinese Philosophers used.
• It slowly won acceptance in the schools of
  business, law, and medicine.

42
Correspondence Schools

• Correspondence Education is a method of
• instruction conducted through the mail
• by a school or other qualified
• institution.

43

• In 1883, the first correspondence program in the
  United States gained academic
  respectability through recognition by the State
  of New York, as a valid educational
  program was the Chautauqua Institute,
  which trained Sunday school teachers.

44

• Correspondence education developed in the
  mid-19th century in Great Britain, France,
  Germany, and the United States, and spread
  rapidly. In 1840, the English educator Sir Isaac
  Pitman taught shorthand by mail
• .

45

• Many educators consider correspondence education
  the precursor of distance
  education, which is instruction that uses
  different communication technologies such as the
  internet, telephones, radio, or television.

46
World War I - Show, Tell, Do, and Check

• To solve an urgent need to train shipyard workers
  in 1917, Charles R. Allen
  adapted Herbart's five-step process. He called
  it the "Show, Tell, Do, and
  Check" method of job instruction.

47

• Prepare the Workers - Put them at ease.
• Find out what they already know
  about the job.
• Get them interested in learning.
• Place each in a correct position.

48

• Present the Operation
• Tell, show, illustrate, and question carefully
  and patiently.
• Stress key points.
• Instruct clearly and completely, taking up one
  point at a time, but no more than they can
  master.

49

• Try Out Performance
• Test them by having them perform the job.
• Have them tell and show you, have them explain
  key points.
• Ask questions and correct answers.
• Continue until you know that they know.

50

• Follow Up - Put them on their own
• Designate who they go to for help.
• Check frequently.
• Encourage questions.
• Get them to look for key points as they progress.
  
• Taper off extra coaching and close follow-ups.

51
John Dewey (1867-1949)

• John Dewey emphasized practical ideas in both his
  philosophical and educational theories, always
  striving to show how abstract concepts could work
  in everyday life.
• He emphasized hands-on learning, and opposed
  authoritarian methods in teaching.

52

• Considered to be the leading progressive educator
  of this century, John Dewey wrote on the great
  issues in education.

53

• John Dewey's significance for informal educators
  lies in a number of areas.
• First, his belief that education must engage
  with and enlarge experience has continued to be a
  significant component in informal education
  practice

54

• Second, and linked to this, Dewey's exploration
  of thinking and reflection - and the associated
  role of educators - has continued to be an
  inspiration.
• He criticized educational methods that simply
  amused and entertained students or were overly
  vocational.

55

• He also advocated education that would fulfill
  and enrich the current lives of students as well
  as prepare them for the future.

56
Role-playing

• Adult learners can
• keep tuned into a
• lecture for no more
• than 15 to 20
• minutes at a time

57
Role Playing Links

• Dr. J. L. Moreno designs the first known role
  playing techniques in 1910.
• Role playing is a primary technique to provide
  participation and involvement in the learning
  process. In a training environment, role playing
  allows the learner to receiveobjective feedback
  about one's performance

58

• Role playing techniques can be used to
• diagnose interactive
  skills, to provide models and practice, and to
  motivate individuals to pay more . attention to
  their interpersonal impact. One of its primary
  benefits is that it
• allows the learner to
  experience a real life situation in a protected
  environment

59
Frederick Winslow Taylor(1856-1950)

• Taylor called his method Scientific Management,
  which used time and motion studies to find the
  one best way to accomplish a task.

60
Pavlov

• conducted, perhaps, the most famous of all
  psychological experiments (1927) when
• he showed that by pairing
  a conditioned stimulus (a bell) with an
  unconditioned stimulus
• (food), a dog would begin
  to salivate (response) when the bell was rung
  without presenting
• the food.

61

• In the early twentieth century a new movement in
  the field of Psychology was
• being felt in
  educational research - behaviorism. This is a
  theory proposed by J.B.
• Watson and based on the
  works of Pavlov and Bekhterev, two Russian
  psychologists who developed an
  animal training model known as
• stimulus-response
  (Classical Conditioning).

62

• Watson argued that such conditioning is the
  basis of human behavior - if you stand
• up every time a lady
  enters the room, you're acting not out of
  'politeness', but
• because behavior is a
  chain of well-set reflexes. He claimed that
  "recency" and
• "frequency" were
  particularly important in determining what
  behavior an individual
• 'emitted' next if you
  usually get up when a lady enters the room,
  you're likely to
• get up when one enters
  now.

63
Gestalt

• Saxophone player or lady?

64

• The word Gestalt is used in
• modern German to mean the way
• a thing has been i.e., "placed,"
• or "put together." There is no
• exact equivalent in English.
• "Form" and "shape" are the
• usual translations.

65
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

• was disturbed by earlier associationists that
  complex ideals are just a combination of simple
  ideals. He added the notion that simple ideals
  combine into a new totality that may bear little
  resemblance to its parts.

66
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943),

• the founder of gestalt psychology, launched it in
  1912 with an article on apparent motion. He had
  an insight while riding train that if two lights
  blink on and off at a certain rate, they give the
  impression that one light is moving back and
  forth.

67

• Wertheimer told this story to illustrate the
  point A school inspector was
• impressed by the
  children that he had observed, but wanted to ask
  one
• more question
  before departing. "How many hairs does a horse
  have?" he
• asked. Much to the
  amazement of both the inspector and the teacher,
  a nine
• year old boy
  answered "3,571,962." "How do you know that your
  answer
• is correct?" asked
  the inspector. "If you do not believe me,"
  answered the
• boy, "count them
  yourself." The inspector broke into laughter and
  vowed to
• tell the story to
  his colleagues when he returned to Vienna. When
  the
• inspector returned
  the following year for his annual visit, the
  teacher asked
• him how his
  colleagues responded to the story. Disappointedly
  he replied, "I
• wanted very much
  to tell the story but I couldn't. For the life of
  me, I
• couldn't remember
  how many hairs the boy had said the horse had."

68
The Teaching Machine

• In 1924, Sidney L. Pressey created a crude
  teaching machine suitable for rote-and-drill
• learning. In 1926, he
  published the first paper on the use of a
  teaching machine in
• School and Society. He
  showed that automated-instruction facilitated
  learning by
• providing for immediate
  reinforcement, individual pace setting, and
  active responding.

69

• Thorndike had a great influence on Pressey. In
  his machine Pressey sought to
• incorporate Thorndike's
  laws. In one version of his machine, a user had
  to answer a
• question twice correctly
  before it was eliminated this addressed the laws
  of exercise
• and effect.

70
Eduard C. Lindeman

• Lindeman suggests that education
• evolves from situations and
  not subjects and that this is the essence of
  adult education.

71
Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949)

• Edward Thorndike is one of the great learning
  theorists of all time. He believed that
• instruction should pursue
  specified, socially useful goals. In 1928 his
  classic study,
• Adult Learning, posited
  that the ability to learn did not decline until
  age 35, and
• then it declined only 1
  percent per year, thus going against the grain of
  the time that
• "you can't teach old dogs
  new trick."

72

• One of his most famous theories is "The Identical
  Elements Theory of the Transfer of
• Training" where the
  amount of transfer between the familiar situation
  and the
• unfamiliar one is
  determined by the number of elements that the two
  situations have
• in common.

73

• He was also one of the first pioneers of
  "active" learning in that he held low opinions
• of lectures, "The lecture
  and demonstration methods represent an approach
  to a
• limiting extreme in which
  the teacher lets the student find out nothing
  which he could
• possible be told or
  shown...They ask of him only that he attend to,
  and do his best to
• understand, questions
  which he did not himself frame and answers which
  he did not
• himself work out."

74

• Thorndike specified three conditions that
  maximized learning
• The law of effect
  stated that the likely recurrence of a response
  is generally
• governed by its
  consequence or effect generally in the form of
  reward or
• punishment.
• The law of recency
  stated that the most recent response is likely to
  govern the
• recurrence.
• The law of exercise
  stated that stimulus-response associations are
• strengthened through
  repetition.

75
Hawthorne Effect

• The Hawthorne
• effect - an increase
• in worker
• productivity
• produced by the
• psychological
• stimulus of being
• singled out and
• made to feel
• important.

76

• Individual behaviors may be altered because they
  know they are being studied was
• demonstrated in a research
  project (1927 - 1932) of the Hawthorne Plant of
  the
• Western Electric Company in
  Cicero, Illinois. This series of research, first
  led by
• Harvard Business School
  professor Elton Mayo along with associates F.J.
• Roethlisberger and William
  J. Dickson started out by examining the physical
  and
• environmental influences of
  the workplace (e.g. brightness of lights,
  humidity) and later,
• moved into the
  psychological aspects (e.g. breaks, group
  pressure, working hours,
• managerial leadership). The
  ideas that this team developed about the social
  dynamics of
• groups in the work setting
  had lasting influence - the collection of data,
• labor-management relations,
  and informal interaction among factory employees.

77

• The major finding of the study was that almost
  regardless of the experimental
• manipulation employed, the
  production of the workers seemed to improve. One
• reasonable conclusion is
  that the workers were pleased to receive
  attention from the
• researchers who expressed
  an interest in them. The study was only expected
  to last one
• year, but because the
  researchers were set back each time they tried to
  relate the
• manipulated physical
  conditions to the worker's efficiency, the
  project extended out to
• five years.

78
Four general conclusions were drawn from the
Hawthorne studies

• The aptitudes of individuals are imperfect
  predictors of job performance.
• Although they give
  some indication of the physical and mental
  potential of the
• individual, the amount
  produced is strongly influenced by social
  factors.

79

• Informal organization affects productivity. The
  Hawthorne researchers
• discovered a group
  life among the workers. The studies also showed
  that the
• relations that
  supervisors develop with workers tend to
  influence the manner in
• which the workers
  carry out directives.

80

• Work-group norms affect productivity. The
  Hawthorne researchers were not
• the first to recognize
  that work groups tend to arrive at norms of what
  is "a fair
• day's work," however,
  they provided the best systematic description and
• interpretation of this
  phenomenon.

81

• The workplace is a social system. The Hawthorne
  researchers came to view
• the workplace as a
  social system made up of interdependent parts.

82
Jean Piaget

• was a Swiss psychologist, whose development
  theories have been
• widely discussed in
  both psychology and educational fields. To learn,
  Piaget
• stressed the holistic
  approach. A child constructs understanding
  through many
• channels reading,
  listening, exploring, and experiencing his or her
  environment.

83

• A Piagetian-inspired curricula emphasizes a
  child-centered educational
• philosophy. His work
  has been labeled an interactionist as well as a
• constructivist. His
  interest in cognitive development came from his
  training in the
• natural sciences and
  his interest in epistemology. He saw cognitive
  growth as an
• extension of
  biological growth and as being governed by the
  same laws and
• principles. He argued
  that intellectual development controlled every
  other
• aspect of development
  - emotional, social, and moral.

84

• Piaget may be best known for his stages of
  cognitive development. He
• discovered that
  children think and reason differently at
  different periods in their
• lives. He believed
  that everyone passed through an invariant
  sequence of four
• qualitatively
  distinct stages. Invariant means that a person
  cannot skip stages or
• reorder them.
  Although every normal child passes through the
  stages in exactly
• the same order, there
  is some variability in the ages at which children
  attain each
• stage

85
. The four stages are

• Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) - The mental
  structures are mainly
• concerned with
  the mastery of concrete objects.
• Preoperational
  (2 years to 7 years) - The mastery of symbols
  takes
• place.
• Concrete
  operational (7 years to 11 years) - Children
  learn mastery of
• classes,
  relations, and numbers and how to reason.
• Formal
  operational (abstract thinking) (11 years and up)
  - The last stage
• deals with the
  mastery of thought.

86
Constructivism

• Cognitive constructivism is based on the work of
  Jean Piaget. His
• theory has
  two major parts an "ages and stages" component
  that
• predicts
  what children can and cannot understand at
  different
• ages, and
  a theory of development that describes how
  children
• develop
  cognitive abilities.

87

• The main ideas underpinning constructivism
  learning theories are
• not new.
  They began with the insights of Socrates who
  claimed
• that there
  are basic conditions for learning that are in the
• cognition
  of the individual (Kanuka Anderson, 1998). But
  it
• was
  Piaget's theory of intellectual growth that had
  the primary
• influence
  on the development of current positions.
  Specifically,
• Piaget
  first emphasized the processes of conceptual
  change as
• 
  interactions between existing cognitive
  structures and new
• experience

88

• During the 1930s and 1940s, constructivism was
  the leading
• 
  perspective among public school educators in the
  United States.
• In this
  theory, the emphasis is placed on the student
  rather than
• the
  teacher. Teachers are seen as facilitators or
  coaches who
• assist
  students construct their own conceptualizations
  and
• solutions
  to problems. Within this theory falls two schools
  of
• thought,
  social constructivism and cognitive
  constructivism

89

• 1. Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist and
  philosopher in the
• 1930's, is
  most often associated with the social
  constructivist
• theory. He
  emphasizes the influences of cultural and social
• contexts
  in learning and supports a discovery model of
  learning.
• This type
  of model places the teacher in an active role
  while the
• students'
  mental abilities develop naturally through
  various paths
• of
  discovery.

90

• 2. Cognitive constructivism is based on two
  different senses of
• 
  "construction." First, on the idea that people
  learn by actively
• 
  constructing new knowledge, not by having
  information poured
• into their
  heads. Moreover, constructivism asserts that
  people
• learn with
  particular effectiveness when they are engaged in
• 
  "constructing" personally meaningful artifacts
  (e.g. computer
• programs,
  animations).

91
Discovery Learning

• Hiero II requested that Archimedes find a method
  for determining whether a
• crown was pure gold
  or alloyed with silver. When he stepped into a
  bath he
• realized that a
  given weight of gold would displace less water
  than an equal
• weight of silver
  (which is less dense than gold) at this point he
  shouted,
• "EUREKA" (I have
  found it!). Discovery learning is based on this
  "Aha!"
• method.

92

• Discovery Learning is an inquiry-based learning
  method. The concept of
• discovery learning
  has appeared numerous times throughout history as
  a part
• of the educational
  philosophy of many great philosophers
  particularly
• Rousseau, Pestalozzi
  and Dewey. "There is an intimate and necessary
  relation
• between the
  processes of actual experience and education"
  wrote Dewey

93

• Discovery learning takes place most notably in
  problem solving situations
• where the learner
  draws on his own experience and prior knowledge
  to
• discover the truths
  that are to be learned. It is a personal,
  internal,
• constructivist
  learning environment

94
Job Instruction Training (JIT)

• During World War II (December 7, 1941 and lasting
  for 5 years), the need for a
• method of fast and
  efficient training arose. Training Within
  Industry, an advisory service
• formed by the National
  Defense Advisory Commission, developed the
  systematic
• on-the-job training method
  called JIT (Job Instruction Training). Its goal
  was to train
• supervisors in defense
  plants in the skills of instructing their workers
  as fast as possible.
• At first the
  train-the-trainer classes were three days long,
  but soon grew to a 45-hour
• program.

95
Job-aid links

• Although used for a very long time, the modern
  Job-Performance-Aid
• traces its modern
  roots to the JIT method. It began as a printed
  card that
• contained
  step-by-step instructions for performing a
  specific task. The
• worker did not
  have to memorize the steps.

96

• Job aids are considered instructional
  interventions because they also
• mediate knowledge
  and skills problems. However, job aids are not
  really
• intended to
  produce learning, as they are a substitute for
  learning. Learning
• that does occur
  as a result of using the job aid (surely
  considerable at
• times) is
  incidental.

97
Abraham Maslow

• American psychologist, Abraham Maslow, published
  A Theory of Human Motivation
• (1943) in the Psychological
  Review Journal which explains his "hierarchy of
  needs."
• His motivational model
  explained that a higher need, ultimately that for
  self-actualization,
• is expressed only after
  lower needs are fulfilled.

98

• Edwin R. Guthrie's study (1946) breaks skills
  into acts. Acts are
• defined as
  complicated behavior patterns usually involving
  some
• goal
  accomplishment. Acts are made up of many
  individual
• movements.
  Movements are specific responses to specific
  stimuli.
• Acts are
  composed of muscular contractions that are the
  response
• to specific
  stimulus and are not dependent upon practice

99

• But the
• learning of
  an act does depend on practice. Learning an act
• requires
  practice so that the proper movement is
  associated with
• its own
  cues. Once acquired, associations are permanent
  but they
• may not
  appear in every performance due to weak
  associations.
• These weak
  associations cannot be retrieved because of
  strong
• 
  interference from other associations.

100

• . Short practice periods
• develop
  weak associations which learners are not able to
  magnify
• into
  stronger ones. - Guthrie, E. R. (1952). The
  Psychology of
• Learning.
  New York Harper Row.

101

• Adams theorized that if we practice long enough
  we develop a
• mental
  image. For example, professional players are
  often known
• to utter
  sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as
  they hit a
• tennis ball
  or throw a football, because they can
  instantaneously
• tell by the
  feel of the act what the result will produce. Not
  having
• balanced
  practice periods prevents learners from becoming
  fully
• comfortable
  with the feel and use of the skill they are
  attempting to
• acquire.
  Learners must have enough time to develop a
  complete
• mental
  image of the sequence of correct responses. Often
  we see
• learners
  who could perform in the classroom and then not
  be able
• to perform
  when they return to work. - Adams, J. (1977).
  Motor
• Learning
  and Retention. In Marx, M. Bunch, M. (Eds.),
• 
  Fundamentals and Applications of Learning. New
  York
• Macmillan.

102

• Hull discovered that when practice periods are
  spaced apart
• 
  (distributed practice), performance is superior
  to what it is when
• practice
  periods are close together (massed practice).
  Also,
• during
  practice periods, the learners' performance will
  gradually
• improve
  until some asymptotic (maximal) level is reached.
  If the
• learners
  are allowed to rest, and then resume practice,
  their
• performance
  will tend to exceed their previous asymptotic
  level
• 
  (reminiscence effect). Learners that are provided
  rest or some
• other form
  of diversion between practice periods will reach
  higher
• levels of
  performance than learners who practice straight
  through
• without
  rest or diversion. - 7 Hull, C. L. (1943).
  Principles of
• Behavior.
  Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

103
Kurt Lewin(1890-1947)

• If you want truly
• to understand
• something, try to
• change it. - Kurt
• Lewin

104

• Organization
• Behavior
• In 1946, social scientist
  Kurt Lewin launches the Research Center for Group
  Dynamics
• at the Massachusetts
  Institute of Technology. His contributions in
  change theory, action
• research, and action
  learning earn him the title of the "father of
  organization
• development."

105
T-Groups

• In 1947, the National Training Laboratories
  Institute starts up in the Bethel ME. They
• pioneer the use of T-groups
  (Sensitivity or Laboratory Training) in which the
  learners
• use feedback, problem
  solving, and role play to gain insights into
  themselves, others, and
• groups. The goal is to
  change the standards, attitudes and behavior of
  individuals.

106
Organizational Development

• A group of researchers from London's Tavistock
  Institute of Human
• Relations, led
  by Eric Trist, studied a South Yorkshire coal
  mine in
• 1949. Their
  research leads in the development of the
  Sociotechnical
• Systems Theory
  which considers both the social and the technical
• aspects when
  designing jobs. It marks a 180-degree departure
  from
• Frederick
  Taylor's scientific management.

107

• There are four basic components to sociotechnical
  theory
• environment
  subsystem, social subsystem, technical subsystem,
  and
• organizational
  design.

108

• Cognitive Science
• "I think, therefore
• I am" - Descartes
• Descartes argued
• that the ultimate
• truth can be
• deduced only from
• the real existence
• of a "thinking
• self." He assumed
• that the "thinking
• self" is
• independent of
• body or matter, as
• it does have an
• extension we can
• see and touch but
• does not think, a
• mind has no

109

• By the mid 1950s, cognitive views of learning and
  development gained dominance over
• the stimulus-response
  approach. With this renewed interest, research
  went into deeper
• levels into how individuals
  acquire, retain, recall and transform
  information. Cognitive
• Psychology is an approach
  to the study of the human mind that relies on an
  information
• processing metaphor and
  tests predictions of theories using human
  subjects engaged in
• cognitive tasks.

110

• The early views of mind had the Greek
  philosophers identifying three aspects of the
• mind Cognition (acts of
  intellect), conation (acts of will), and affect
  (acts of emotions)
• These are related to what
  we today identify as the distinction between
  structure
• (organization) and process
  (action).

111
Instructional Systems Design (ISD) or
System Approach to Training (SAT)

• ISD Model
• Instructional systems
  design arose out of the 50-60's as educational
  technology
• development paralleled and
  modeled the systems approach emerging within the
  military
• and industrial worlds. The
  traditional approach to education was viewed as
  piecemeal.
• ISD attempted to integrate
  all the components of the instructional process
  into a system
• . This was accomplished by
  developing instructional systems with flow charts
  or lists of
• steps to be followed. The
  term task analysis was used by the Air Force in
  the early
• 1950s to refer to
  procedures for anticipating the job requirements
  of new equipment
• under development.

112
Don Kirkpatrick and Evaluating Training

• Evaluation
• Don Kirkpatrick introduces
  his four-level model of evaluating training in
  1959
• 1.Reaction - measures how
  those who participate in the program react to it.
  
• 2.Learning - the extent
  to which participants change attitudes, improve
  knowledge,
• and increase skill as
  a result of attending the program.
• 3.Behavior - the extent
  to which a change in behavior has occurred
  because the
• participants attended
  the training program.
• 4.Results - the final
  results that occurred because the participants
  attended the
• program.

113
Herzberg's Hygiene and Motivational Factors

• In 1959, Frederick Herzberg developed a list of
  factors which are closely based on
• Maslow's Hierarchy of
  Needs, except it more closely related to work.
  Hygiene factors
• must be present in the job
  before motivators can be used to stimulate the
  workers

114

• Hygiene or Dissatisfiers
• Working conditions
• Policies and
  administrative practices
• Salary and Benefits
• Supervision
• Status
• Job security
• Fellow workers
• Personal life

115

• Motivators or Satisfiers
• Recognition
• Achievement
• Advancement
• Growth
• Responsibility
• Job challenge

116
B. F. Skinner (1904 -1990)

• Skinner designed an apparatus, called a
• Skinner box, that allowed him to formulate
• important principles of animal learning. An
• animal placed inside the box is rewarded
• with a small bit of food each time it makes
• the desired response, such as pressing a
• lever or pecking a key. A device outside the
• box records the animal's responses.

117
Theory X and Theory Y

• Douglas McGreagor developed a philosophical view
  of humankind with his Theory X
• and Theory Y in 1960. These
  are two opposing perceptions about how people
  view
• human behavior at work and
  organizational life.

118

• Theory X - With Theory X assumptions,
  management's role is to coerce and control
• employees.

119

• Theory Y - With Theory Y assumptions,
  management's role is to develop the potential
• in employees and help them
  to release that potential towards common goals.

120
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

• Rogers and Feedback
• Best
  known for his contribution to client-centered
  therapy,
• Rogers
  was one of the founders of humanistic psychology,
• which
  promotes a more person-to-person approach to the
• 
  traditional therapist-patient relationship, and
  emphasizes the
• 
  responsibility and intention in human behavior.
  Rogers also had
• much to
  say about education

121
Albert Bandura

• Learning by Observing
• Observational Learning Links
• Self-Efficacy Links
• In the early
  1960s, Albert Bandura began a series of writings
  that
• challenged the
  older explanations of imitative learning and
  expand the topic
• into what is now
  referred to as Observational Learning. According
  to
• Bandura,
  observation learning may or may not involve
  imitation

122

• Acquisition - New responses are learned by
  observing the model.
• Inhibition -
  A response that otherwise may be made is changed
• when the
  observer sees a model being punished.
• 
  Disinhibition - A reduction in fear by observing
  a model's behavior
• go
  unpunished in a feared activity.

123

• Facilitation - A model elicits from an observer a
  response that has
• already been
  learned.
• Creativity -
  Observing several models performing and then
  adapting
• a
  combination of characteristics or styles.

124
Cuing

• Cuing refers to actions that make stimuli more
  salient and thus more likely
• to be noticed.
  Attention can be cued directly, e.g., "Watch
  this!", or
• indirectly, e.g.,
  "I wonder what will happen when I push this
  button?" In
• general, cuing
  includes the directing of attention through
  pointing, holding
• objects up for
  viewing, telling learners where to look, or
  asking questions
• that will cause
  them to process information and find the
  appropriate
• stimulus.

125
Self-Efficacy

• Bandura also researched self-efficacy. This is
  part of our "self system" that
• helps us to
  evaluate our performance. Perceived self-efficacy
  refers to
• one's impression
  of what one is capable of doing. This comes from
  a
• variety of
  sources, such as personal accomplishments and
  failures, seeing
• others who are
  similar to oneself, and verbal persuasion.

126
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127
Instructional Design

• In 1962, Robert Glaser synthesized the work of
  previous researchers and introduced
• the concept of
  instructional design. He also advocated
  Individually Prescribed
• Instruction (IPI), an
  approach where the results of a learner's
  placement test are used
• to plan learner-specific
  instruction.

128
Performance Objectives

• In 1962, Robert Mager published his work
  Preparing Instructional Objectives on the
• construction of performance
  objectives. An objective describes in measurable
  terms of
• who an objective targets,
  the behavior they will exhibit, the conditions or
  limitations
• under which they must carry
  out this behavior, and the criteria against which
  their
• behavior will be gauged.

129

• Performance or learning objectives are often
  defined as the task (behavior), condition,
• and standard. For example,
  "From memory, list the three requirements of a
  well-stated
• performance objective
  without error."

130

• Task - list the three requirements of a
  well-stated performance objective
• Condition - From
  memory
• Standard - without
  error

131
Robert Gagne

• Conditions For Learning To Occur
• In 1962 when Robert
  Gagne published Military Training and Principles
  of
• Learning he
  demonstrated a concern for the different levels
  of learning. His
• differentiation of
  psychomotor skills, verbal information,
  intellectual skills,
• cognitive strategies,
  and attitudes provides a companion to Bloom's
  Taxonomy

132

• . These events are still important for
• the basis for the
  design of instruction and the selection of
  appropriate media 1.gain attention
• 2.tell learners
  the learning objective
• 3.stimulate recall
  
• 4.present the
  stimulus, content
• 5.provide
  guidance, relevance, and organization
• 6.elicit the
  learning by demonstrating it
• 7.provide feedback
  on performance
• 8.assess
  performance, give feedback and reinforcement
• 9.enhance
  retention and transfer to other contexts

133

• Gagne also distinguished eight different classes
  of situations in which human
• beings learn
  1.Signal Learning - The individual learns to make
  a general, diffuse
• response to a
  signal. Such was the classical conditioned
  response of
• Pavlov.
• 2.Stimulus-Response
  Learning - The learner acquires a precise
  response
• to a
  discriminated stimulus.
• 3.Chaining - A
  chain of two or more stimulus-response
  connections is
• acquired.

134

• 4.Verbal Association - The learning of chains
  that are verbal.
• 5.Discrimination
  Learning - The individual learns to make
  different
• identifying
  responses to many different stimuli which may
  resemble each
• other in
  physical appearance.
• 6.Concept Learning
  - The learner acquires a capability of making a
• common response
  to a class of stimuli.

135

• 7.Rule Learning - A rule is a chain of two or
  more concepts.
• 8.Problem Solving
  - A kind of learning that requires the internal
  events
• usually called
  thinking.

136
The Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid

• Management Grid
• In 1964 Robert Blake and
  Jane Mouton develop a model that conceptualizes
• management styles and
  relations.
• Their Grid uses two axis.
  "Concern for people" is plotted using the
  vertical axis and
• "Concern for task" is along
  the horizontal axis. They both have a range of 1
  to 9. The
• notion that just two
  dimensions can describe a managerial behavior has
  the attraction of
• simplicity.

137
Alan Tough

• Tough's first work (1968), Why Adults Learn A
  Study of the Major Reasons
• for Beginning and
  Continuing a Learning Project. Toronto Ontario
  Institute
• for Studies in
  Education, explained why adult learners expect
  the learning
• experience to mirror
  their feelings of autonomy and self-worth, and to
• acknowledge their life
  experience.

138
Fred Keller - The Personalized System of
Instruction (PSI)

• Research on PSI
• Also know as the
  Keller plan. First described by Fred Keller in
  Good Bye
• Teacher - Journal
  of Applied Behavior Analysis (1968). It is
  composed
• of small
  self-paced modularized units of instructions
  where study guides
• direct learners
  through the modules. Unit tests are given on each
  module
• where the
  learners must show mastery by scoring at least a
  90. Student

139

• Keller divided the process for creating PSI into
  four steps
• Determine
  the material to be covered in the course.
• Divide the
  material into self contained modules (segments).
• Create
  methods of evaluating the degree to which the
  learner has conquered the material in a given
  module.
• Allow
  learners to move from module to module at their
  own pace.

140

• "(1) The go-at-your-own pace feature, which
  permits a student to move
• through the
  course at a speed commensurate with his ability
  and other
• demands of his
  time. (2) The unit-perfection requirement for
  advance, which lets the student go ahead to new
  material only after demonstrating
• mastery of that
  which preceded. (3) The use of lectures and
• demonstrations as
  vehicles of motivation, rather than sources of
  critical

141

• permits repeated testing, immediate scoring,
  almost unavoidable tutoring,
• and a marked
  enhancement of the personal-social aspect of
  theeducational process". - Fred Keller -
  "Good-Bye Teacher..." (1968)
• Journal of
  Applied Behavior Analysis.

142
Malcom Knowles

• In 1970, Malcom Knowles began to popularize
  andragogy by advocating the adult
• learning theory - a set of
  assumptions that characterize adult learners.
  Knowles ident