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Title: Background


1
Frustration and Embodiment Influence the
Relationship Between Aggressive Music and
Aggression
William Langston and Justin Higgs Middle
Tennessee State University
  • Background
  • The research reported here was designed to
    address two main questions
  • What is the effect of frustration on the
    relationship between aggressive music and
    aggression?
  • What is the effect of embodying an aggressive
    action on the relationship between aggressive
    music and aggression?
  • Anderson, Berkowitz, et al. (2003) in a
    comprehensive review of the literature on media
    and violence declared that the scientific debate
    over whether media violence increases aggression
    and violence is essentially over (p.81).
    However, the section of their review devoted to
    the effects of aggressive music on aggression
    suggests that that particular area has received
    less research attention. Anderson, Carnagey, and
    Eubanks (2003) concluded with a call for
    additional research on the relationship between
    music and aggressive behavior (they describe
    research on the effects of violent lyrics as
    being in its infancy, p.969).
  • In fact, a review of the literature reveals a
    mixed bag
  • Violent or misogynistic music has an effect
  • Anderson, Carnagey, and Eubanks (2003) Effects
    of violent lyrics on hostility and aggressive
    thoughts.
  • Barongan and Hall (1995) Effects of misogynistic
    lyrics on mens choice of a vignette to show to a
    female confederate.
  • St. Lawrence and Joyner (1991) Effects of
    misogynistic lyrics on sex-role stereotyping,
    attitudes towards women.
  • Fischer and Greitmeyer (2006) Effects of
    misogynistic lyrics on amount of hot sauce picked
    for a female confederate, number of negative
    attributes of women produced, feelings of
    vengeance, and time selected for a female target
    to hold her hand in an ice water bath some
    effects of man-hating lyrics on female
    participants.
  • Wester, Crown, Quatman, and Heesacker (1997)
    Effect of misogynistic gangsta rap lyrics on an
    adversarial sexual beliefs scale.
  • Ballard and Coates (1995) Effect of lyric
    content on Beck Depression Inventory scores (the
    nonviolent rap song produced the highest scores,
    possibly because the negative rap songs made
    participants feel relatively good about their
    own lives, p.164) rap music produced higher
    anger measures than heavy metal music on some
    scales.
  • Violent or misogynistic music does not have an
    effect
  • Wanamaker and Reznikoff (1989) No effect of
    aggressive music on hostility.
  • St. Lawrence and Joyner (1991) No effect of
    heavy metal misogynous lyrics on acceptance of
    interpersonal violence, adversarial sexual
    beliefs, and acceptance of rape myths.
  • Wester, Crown, Quatman, and Heesacker (1997) No
    effect of misogynistic lyrics on an attitude
    toward women scale, a sexual conservatism scale,
    or a sex-role stereotyping scale.
  • Ballard and Coates (1995) No effect of music or
    lyrical theme on suicidal ideation or anxiety.
  • A number of explanations have been proposed to
    explain the discrepant results
  • Results
  • Experiment 1
  • Hostility. The main effect for music was
    significant, F(3,374) 10.30, MSE 476.21, p lt
    .01, ?2 .08. Tukey post hoc comparisons
    indicated that the two heavy music means did not
    differ and both were significantly higher than
    the control music and no music groups. The
    control music and no music groups did not differ.
    The main effect for frustration was significant,
    F(1,374) 111.31, MSE 476.21, p lt.01, ?2
    .23. The interaction between music and
    frustration was also significant, F(3,374)
    2.83, MSE 476.21, p .04, ?2 .02. Separate
    one-way ANOVAs (for either frustrated or
    non-frustrated participants) revealed that there
    was not a significant music effect for frustrated
    participants, F(3,192) 0.97, MSE 618.70, p
    .41, ?2 .02, but that there was a large music
    effect for non-frustrated participants, F(3,182)
    16.85, MSE 325.90, p lt .01, ?2 .22.
  • Experimenter evaluation. The main effect of music
    was not significant, F(3,374) 1.71, MSE
    22.62, p .16, ?2 .01. The main effect for
    frustration was significant, F(1,374) 32.31,
    MSE 22.62, p lt.01, ?2 .08. The interaction
    between music and frustration was not
    significant, F(3,374) 0.81, MSE 22.62, p
    .49, ?2 .01.
  • Experiment 2
  • Hostility. The main effect for music was
    significant, F(1,124) 7.41, MSE 358.96, p
    lt.01, ?2 .06. The main effect for movement type
    was significant, F(1,124) 4.89, MSE 358.96, p
    .03, ?2 .04. The interaction between music
    and embodiment was not significant, F(1,124)
    0.52, MSE 358.96, p .47, ?2 .004.
  • Experimenter evaluation. The main effect of music
    was not significant, F(1,124) 0.02, MSE
    14.46, p .89, ?2 .00. The main effect for
    embodiment was marginally significant, F(1,124)
    3.90, MSE 14.46, p .05, ?2 .03. The
    interaction between music and embodiment was not
    significant, F(1,124) 0.19, MSE 14.46, p
    .67, ?2 .002.
  • Discussion
  • The data from two experiments showed that music
    can have an influence on hostility. There is no
    evidence of an effect of music on the
    experimenters evaluation.
  • We replicated some effects that have been
    reported previously (e.g., an effect of music on
    hostility as in Anderson, et al., 2003). We also
    extended the results of previous studies by
    demonstrating that an explicit focus on the
    lyrics is not necessary for music to produce an
    effect, and by finding an influence of other
    variables on the relationship between music and
    aggressive thoughts and actions. For aggressive
    actions in particular (the experimenter
    evaluation), frustration and embodiment produced
    effects, but music did not.
  • The effects of music on hostility might be
    qualified by music preference. Gowensmith and
    Bloom (1997) found that country music fans
    listening to heavy metal and heavy metal fans
    listening to country music produced higher levels
    of anger (and equal to one another) than heavy
    metal fans listening to heavy metal and country
    music fans listening to country music (again,
    equal to one another). In other words, heavy
    metal music increased anger, but only when it was
    being listened to by country fans. It did not
    increase anger for heavy metal fans. There is
    some support for an effect of this sort in the
    data from Experiment 1. Participants listening to
    music were asked whether or not they typically
    listen to this kind of music. Overall, the main
    effect of preference on hostility was significant
    (listen M 80.66, dont listen M 91.75),
    F(1,278) 6.70, MSE 568.52, p .01, ?2
    .02. There was no evidence of a preference effect
    on the hostility scores in Experiment 2.
  • Even if the effect on hostility is due to the
    music, Anderson, et al. (2003) showed that these
    effects are relatively short-lived.
  • In conclusion, the results from the studies
    suggest that, whereas music may have some effect
    on hostility, variables such as frustration and
    embodiment have stronger effects and also
    influence aggressive behavior.
  • Experiment 1
  • Will frustration influence whether or not
    aggressive music has an effect? It is possible
    that there is an interaction between aggressive
    music and frustration such that aggressive music
    by itself has little or no effect, but that with
    frustration the music will increase aggression.
  • The first independent variable was the music
    type Heavy (a driving beat, distorted guitars,
    and violent, screaming vocals), e.g., Born to
    Crush You (Icepick, Violent Epiphany, 2006)
    Christian heavy (similar music to heavy, but with
    a Christian theme), e.g., Resistance to
    Resistance (Seventh Star, Brood of Vipers,
    2005) heavy metal, e.g., Shout at the Devil
    (Motley Crüe, Shout at the Devil, 1983) or no
    music.
  • The second independent variable was frustration.
    Half of the participants listened to the music
    while working on math problems that couldnt be
    solved in the allotted time, half were allowed to
    use a calculator to solve the problems.
  • The dependent variables were hostility (the State
    Hostility Scale, Anderson,Deuser, DeNeve, 1995)
    and an experimenter evaluation used to measure
    aggression towards the experimenter (similar to
    Rohsenow Bachorowski, 1984).
  • The participants were 382 students from the
    psychology department research pool. Of the 284
    listening to music, 62 reported that they
    listened to the type of music to which they were
    assigned.
  • The results of Experiment 1 are presented in
    Figures 1 and 2.
  • Experiment 2
  • Will embodying an aggressive action influence
    whether or not aggressive music has an effect?
    Recent research on the effects of embodiment on
    variables such as stereotype activation
    (Mussweiler, 2006) suggest that embodiment might
    have an influence. Aggressive music by itself may
    have little or no effect, but, when paired with
    an aggressive action (e.g., dancing or gestures),
    there might be an effect.
  • The first independent variable was the music
    type Heavy, e.g., Born to Crush You (Icepick,
    Violent Epiphany, 2006) and jazz, Mack The
    Knife (Louis Armstrong, Golden Legends, 2006).
  • The second independent variable was embodiment.
    Half of the participants snapped their fingers in
    time to the beat while listening to the music
    (appropriate for the jazz selection) and half of
    the participants ground their teeth while
    listening to the music (appropriate for the heavy
    music).
  • The dependent variables were hostility and an
    experimenter evaluation.
  • The participants were 128 students from the
    psychology department research pool. Twenty-four
    reported that they listened to the type of music
    to which they were assigned.
  • The results of Experiment 2 are presented in
    Figures 3 and 4.

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