The chapter will address the following questions:

1
Introduction

• The chapter will address the following questions
• What is the difference between data and
  information?
• What is the the product called an information
  system?
• What are six classes of information system
  applications and how they interoperate?
• What is the role of information systems
  architecture in systems development?
• What are four groups of stakeholders in
  information systems development and the unique
  role of the systems analyst in relation to the
  four groups?
• Could you be able to recognize categories of
  systems users and managers who become
  stakeholders in systems development?

2
Introduction

• The chapter will address the following questions
• Can you differentiate between a perspective and a
  view as it relates to information systems
  architecture?
• What are four perspectives of the DATA focus for
  an information system?
• What are four perspectives of the PROCESS focus
  for an information system?
• What are four perspectives of the INTERFACE focus
  for an information system?
• What are four perspectives of the GEOGRAPHY focus
  for an information system?

3
A Review of Fundamentals ofInformation Systems

• What is the difference between Data and
  Information?
• Data are raw facts about the organization and its
  business transactions. Most data items have
  little meaning and use by themselves.
• Information is data that has been refined and
  organized by processing and purposeful
  intelligence.
• Information Systems transform data into useful
  information.
• An information system is an arrangement of
  people, data, processes, interfaces, and
  geography that are integrated for the purpose of
  supporting and improving the day-to-day
  operations in a business, as well as fulfilling
  the problem-solving and decision-making
  information needs of business managers.

4
A Review of Fundamentals ofInformation Systems

• Information technology has significantly expanded
  the power and potential of most information
  systems.
• Information technology is a contemporary term
  that describes the combination of computer
  technology (hardware and software) with
  telecommunications technology (data, image, and
  voice networks).

5
A Review of Fundamentals ofInformation Systems

• Transaction Processing Systems
• Business transactions are events that serve the
  mission of the business.
• Transaction processing systems are information
  system applications that capture and process data
  about (or for) business transactions. They are
  sometimes called data processing systems.

6
A Review of Fundamentals ofInformation Systems

• Management Information Systems
• Management Information Systems supplement
  transaction processing systems with management
  reports required to plan, monitor, and control
  business operations.
• A management information system (MIS) is an
  information system application that provides for
  management-oriented reporting, usually in a
  predetermined, fixed format.

7
A Review of Fundamentals ofInformation Systems

• Decision Support Systems
• Decision Support Systems are concerned with
  providing useful information to support the
  decision process.
• A decision support system (DSS) is an information
  system application that provides its users with
  decision-oriented information whenever a decision
  making situation arises. When applied to
  executive managers, these systems are sometimes
  called executive information systems.
• A DSS is designed to support unstructured
  decisions.

8
A Review of Fundamentals ofInformation Systems

• Decision Support Systems
• A DSS provides one or more of the following types
  of support to the decision maker
• Identification of problems or decision making
  opportunities (similar to exception reporting).
• Identification of possible solutions or
  decisions.
• Access to information needed to solve a problem
  or make a decision.
• Analysis of possible decisions, or of variables
  that will impact a decision. Sometimes this is
  called what if analyses.
• Simulation of possible solutions and their likely
  results.

9
A Review of Fundamentals ofInformation Systems

• Decision Support Systems
• A DSS can utilize a Data Warehouse.
• A data warehouse is a read-only, informational
  database that is populated with detailed,
  summary, and exception information that can be
  accessed by end users and managers with DSS tools
  that generate a virtually limitless variety of
  information in support of unstructured decisions.

10
A Review of Fundamentals ofInformation Systems

• Expert Systems
• Expert Systems are an extension of the decision
  support system.
• An expert system is an information system
  application that captures the knowledge and
  expertise of a problem solver or decision maker,
  and then simulates the thinking of that expert
  for those who have less expertise.
• Expert systems are implemented with artificial
  intelligence technology, often called expert
  system shells.

11
A Review of Fundamentals ofInformation Systems

• Office Information Systems
• Office Information Systems are concerned with
  getting all relevant information to all those who
  need it.
• Office information systems support the wide range
  of business office activities that provide for
  improved work flow and communications between
  workers, regardless of whether or not those
  workers are physically located in an office.
• Office information systems may use the following
  technologies
• Electronic forms technology
• Work group technology
• Electronic messaging technology
• Office automation suite technology
• Imaging technology

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A Review of Fundamentals ofInformation Systems

• Personal and Work Group Information Systems
• Personal and Work Group Information Systems
  typically are built using personal computer
  technology and software.
• Personal information systems are those designed
  to meet the needs of a single user. They are
  designed to boost an individuals productivity.
• Work group information systems are those designed
  to meet the needs of a work group. They are
  designed to boost the groups productivity.

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14
A Framework For Information Systems Architecture

• What is an Information Systems Architecture?
• An information systems architecture provides a
  unifying framework into which various people with
  different perspectives can organize and view the
  fundamental building blocks of information
  systems.
• Stakeholders have different views of the system
  and each has something at stake in determining
  the success of the system.
• Stakeholders can be broadly classified into four
  groups
• System Owners
• System Users
• System Designers
• System Builders

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Perspectives - The People Side of Information
Systems

• What are Information Workers?
• The term information worker (also called
  knowledge worker) was coined to describe those
  people whose jobs involve the creation,
  collection, processing, distribution, and use of
  information.
• System Owners
• System owners are an information system's
  sponsors and chief advocates. They are usually
  responsible for budgeting the money and time to
  develop, operate, and maintain the information
  system. They are also ultimately responsible for
  the systems justification and acceptance.

17
Perspectives - The People Side of Information
Systems

• System Users
• System users are the people who use (and directly
  benefit from) the information system on a regular
  basis capturing, validating, entering,
  responding to, storing, and exchanging data and
  information.
• There are many classes of system users including
• Internal Users
• Clerical and service workers
• Technical and professional staff
• Knowledge workers are a subset of information
  workers whose responsibilities are based on a
  specialized body of knowledge.
• Supervisors, middle managers, and executive
  managers

18
Perspectives - The People Side of Information
Systems

• System Users
• There are many classes of system users including
  (continued)
• Remote and Mobile Users
• External Users

19
Perspectives - The People Side of Information
Systems

• System Designers
• System designers translate users' business
  requirements and constraints into technical
  solutions. They design the computer files,
  databases, inputs, outputs, screens, networks,
  and programs that will meet the system users'
  requirements. They also integrate the technical
  solution back into the day-to-day business
  environment.

20
Perspectives - The People Side of Information
Systems

• System Designers
• Todays system designers tend to focus on
  technical specialties.
• Database designers have a DATA focus.
• Software engineers and programmers have a PROCESS
  (or program) focus.
• Personal computing specialists and systems
  integrators usually have an INTERFACE focus.
• Network and telecommunications specialists have a
  GEOGRAPHY focus.

21
Perspectives - The People Side of Information
Systems

• System Builders
• System builders construct the information system
  components based upon the design specifications
  from the system designers. In many cases, the
  system designer and builder for a component are
  one and the same.
• The applications programmer is the classic
  example of a system builder.

22
Perspectives - The People Side of Information
Systems

• The Role of the System Analyst
• For the system owners and users, the analyst
  typically constructs and validates their views.
• For the system designers and builders, the
  analyst (at the very least) ensures that the
  technical views are consistent and compatible
  with the business views.

23
Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• There are at least four distinct focuses in a
  system.
• DATA - the raw material used to create useful
  information.
• PROCESSES - the activities (including management)
  that carry out the mission of the business.
• INTERFACES - how the system interacts with people
  and other systems
• GEOGRAPHY - where the data is captured and
  stored where the processes happen where the
  interfaces happen.

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Data
• Data is the raw material used to produce
  information.
• Goal is to capture and store business data using
  database technology.

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Data
• System Owners View of Data
• They are interested in business resources.
• Business resources are (1) things that are
  essential to the system's purpose or mission or
  (2) things that must be managed or controlled in
  order to achieve business goals and objectives.

29
Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Data
• System Users View of Data
• They are experts about the data that describe the
  business system.
• Only see data in how it is currently implemented
  or think it should be implemented.
• They relate data requirements to systems
  analysts.
• Data requirements are a representation of users'
  data in terms of entities, attributes,
  relationships, and rules. Data requirements
  should be expressed in a format that is
  independent of the technology that can or will be
  used to implement the data.

30
Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Data
• System Designers View of Data
• System designers translate requirements into
  computer files and databases.
• System designers view of data consists of data
  structures, database schemas, file organizations,
  fields, indexes, and other technology-dependent
  components.
• System designers view of data as shown in the
  data column of the framework is a database schema.

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Data
• System Builders View of Data
• System builders are closest to the database
  technology foundation.
• System builders are forced to represent data in
  very precise and unforgiving languages.
• The most commonly encountered database
  construction language is SQL (Structured Query
  Language).

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Processes
• PROCESSES deliver the functionality of an
  information system.
• Processes perform the work in a system.
• The goal is to automate appropriate processes
  with software technology.

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Processes
• System Owners View of Processes
• System owners are interested in the groups of
  high-level processes called business functions.
• Business functions are ongoing activities that
  support the business. Functions can be decomposed
  into other functions, and eventually, into
  discrete processes that do specific tasks.
• Historically, most information systems were (or
  are) function-centered. That meant that the
  system supported one business function or
  functional area.

35
Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Processes
• System Owners View of Processes (continued)
• Today, many single-function information systems
  are being redesigned as cross-functional systems.
• A cross functional information system supports
  relevant business processes from several business
  functions without regard to traditional
  organizational boundaries such as divisions,
  departments, centers, and offices.
• This trend is being driven by total quality
  management and business process redesign
  initiatives that are intended to reinvent and
  streamline the way organizations do business

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Processes
• System Users View of Processes
• Users see processes in terms of discrete business
  processes.
• Business processes are discrete activities that
  have inputs and outputs, as well as starting
  times and stopping times. Some business processes
  happen repetitively, while others happen
  occasionally, or even rarely. Business processes
  may be implemented by people, machines,
  computers, or a combination of all three.
• Specific policies and procedures underlie these
  business processes.
• Policies are a set of rules that apply to a
  business process.
• Procedures are step-by-step instructions and
  logic for accomplishing a business process.

37
Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Processes
• System Designers View of Processes
• Is constrained by the limitations of specific
  technology.
• Choice(s) may be limited by a standardized
  application architecture that specifies which
  software (and hardware) technologies must be
  used.
• The designers view of processes is technical.
• The designer tends to focus on an application
  schema.
• An application schema is a model that
  communicates how selected business processes are,
  or will be, implemented using the computer and
  programs.

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Processes
• System Builders View of Processes
• System builders represent PROCESSES using precise
  computer programming languages that describe
  inputs, outputs, logic, and control.
• Computer programming languages are used to write
  applications programs.
• Applications programs are language-based,
  machine-readable representations of what a
  computer process is supposed to do, or how a
  computer process is supposed to accomplish its
  task.

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Processes
• System Builders View of Processes (continued)
• Some computer programming languages provide an
  excellent environment for prototyping computer
  processes.
• Prototyping is a technique for quickly building a
  functioning model of the information system using
  rapid application development tools (provided
  with most popular programming languages).

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Interfaces
• There are two critical components to information
  system Interfaces.
• Information systems must provide effective and
  efficient interfaces to the systems users.
• Information systems must interface effectively
  and efficiently to other information systems,
  both within the business, and increasingly with
  other businesses information systems.
• Technologies exist to implement interfaces.
• Technologies exist that can almost completely
  eliminate human error or intervention.
• Technologies exist for system integration.

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Interfaces
• System Owners View of Interfaces
• System owners are concerned with costs and
  benefits of the interfacing solutions that will
  be developed.
• When considering whether or not to sponsor a new
  information system, the system owners only want
  to know
• With which business units, customers, and
  external businesses will the new system
  interface?
• What are the key inputs and outputs with respect
  to those business units, customers, and external
  businesses?
• Will the system have to interface with any other
  information systems or services?
• Are there any corporate or governmental
  regulations or policies that may constrain the
  system interfaces?

43
Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Interfaces
• System Users View of Interfaces
• System users are most interested in what has
  come be called the user interface to the system.
• The user interface defines how the system users
  directly interact with the information system to
  provide inputs and queries, and receive outputs
  and help.
• The explosive growth of personal computers,
  combined with the popularity of graphical user
  environments such as Microsoft Windows (for
  Intel-based PCs) and Apple Macintosh (for
  Motorola-based PCs) has created a defacto
  standard the graphical user interface.

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Interfaces
• System Designers View of Interfaces
• System designers must be concerned the details of
  both user and system interfaces.
• System designers are concerned with consistency,
  completeness, and user dialogues of user
  interfaces.
• User dialogues describe how the user moves from
  screen-to-screen, interacting with the
  application programs to perform useful work.
• System designers view the interface in terms of
  interface properties, system states, events that
  change the system states, and responses to
  events.
• Collectively, this is called the interface schema.

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Interfaces
• System Designers View of Interfaces (continued)
• System designers are concerned with
  system-to-system interfaces.
• System designers have to design the
  system-to-system interfaces that allow a new
  information system to transparently interoperate
  with previously designed systems.

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Interfaces
• System Builders View of Interfaces
• System builders construct, install, test, and
  implement both user and system interfaces.
• For user interfaces, the technology is usually
  embedded into the programming language
  environments used to construct the computer
  processes.
• System interfaces are considerably more complex
  to construct and may utilize system interfacing
  technologies such as middleware.
• Middleware is a layer of utility software that
  sits in between applications software and systems
  software to transparently integrate differing
  technologies so that they can operate.

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Geography
• Information systems geography describes
• the distribution of DATA, PROCESSES, and
  INTERFACES (the other building blocks) to
  appropriate business locations
• the movement of data and information between
  those locations
• The inclusion of GEOGRAPHY in the framework is
  driven by the trend towards distributed
  computing.
• Distributed computing is the decentralization of
  applications and databases to multiple computers
  across a computer network.

48
Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Geography
• The most popular application of distributed
  computing is called client/server computing.
• In a client/server computing application,
  information system building blocks are
  distributed between client personal computers
  and server shared computers. The clients and
  servers effectively interoperate to share the
  overall workload.

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Geography
• Distributed computing is being driven by several
  trends.
• Organizations that can gain faster access to
  critical information have a competitive
  advantage.
• Organizations that can extend their information
  systems to include their customers and suppliers
  have a competitive advantage.
• Organizations operate in more locations, national
  and international, then ever before.

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Geography
• System Owners View of Geography
• The system owner views the geography in terms of
  operating locations.
• The system owners will ultimately decide the
  degree to which the system will be centralized,
  distributed, or duplicated.

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Geography
• System Users View of Geography
• System users are the experts about the
  requirements for any given location.
• System users are interested in operating
  locations.
• System users tend to have a more microscopic view
  of locations.
• System users think in terms of communications
  requirements.
• Communications requirements define the
  information resource requirements for operating
  locations, and how different operating locations
  need to communicate with one another. These
  communication requirements are expressed
  independent of any specific technology is or can
  be used to implement them.

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Geography
• System Designers View of Geography
• System designer's view of GEOGRAPHY is influenced
  and/or constrained by the limitations of specific
  technology.
• System designer's view of GEOGRAPHY is depicted
  via a network schema that can support the
  business network.
• A network schema (also called a network
  configuration or topology) is a technical model
  that identifies all of the computing centers,
  computers, and networking hardware that will be
  involved in a computer application.
• System designer's view of networks is technical.

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Geography
• System Designers View of Geography (continued)
• Given the network schematic, the designers job
  is to determine the optimal distribution of DATA,
  PROCESSES, and INTERFACES across the network.
• This is called application partitioning.
• The system designer's intent is to prepare
  specifications that
• fulfill the business network requirements of the
  users
• provide sufficient detail and consistency for
  communicating the network design to the system
  builders.

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Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
System Framework

• Building Blocks of Geography
• System Builders View of Geography
• System builders use telecommunications languages
  and standards to write network programs.
• Network programs are machine-readable
  specifications of computer communications
  parameters such as node addresses, protocols,
  line speeds, flow controls, security, privileges,
  and other complex, networking parameters.

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Summary

• Introduction
• A Review of Fundamentals of Information Systems
• A Framework For Information Systems Architecture
• Perspectives - The People Side of Information
  Systems
• Building Blocks - Expanding The Information
  System Framework