Kinesiology 406

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Kinesiology 406

• Motor control, motor learning and skilled
  performance

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Chapter 1

• The Classification of Motor Skills

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Motor control definition

• As a scientific discipline, the area of motor
  control seeks to identify the neurological,
  cognitive, and behavioral processes that control
  the voluntary coordination of our many muscles
  and joints during the production of a motor
  skill.

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Motor learning definition

• As a scientific discipline, the area of motor
  learning seeks to identify how practice produces
  changes in the neurological, cognitive, and
  behavioral processes that control the voluntary
  coordination of our many muscles and joints
  during the production of a motor skill.

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Defining voluntary control

• Are movements and actions one in the same?
• A movement is
• An action and/or motor skill is

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Classifying motor skills muscles

• Muscle size
• Fine actions
• Gross actions

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Classifying motor skills stop, starts, rhythms

• General action type
• Continuous
• Discrete
• Serial (sequential)

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Classifying motor skills environmental context

• Initiation and context stability
• Closed motor skills
• Open motor skills

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Chapter 2

• The Measurement of Human Performance

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Experiment Participants and bias

• Populations
• Samples
• Selecting a sample

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Experiment manipulating, measuring, and baseline

• Independent variable
• Dependent variable
• Control condition
• Experimental condition

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Dependent variables performance outcome measures

• Temporal measures
• Reaction time (RT)
• Movement time (MT)
• Spatial measures

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Dependent variables performance production
measures

• Kinematics
• Electromyography
• Brain signals

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How do you record outcome and production measures?

• Computers
• Keypads
• Joystick or mouse

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How do you record kinematic and kinetic
production measures?

• Motion analysis system

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Viewing kinematic data

• Stick figure representation of movements and
  actions

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Plotting kinematic data time series and
angle-angle plot
Elbow angle
60 deg
Wrist angle
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Displacement and velocity
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Displacement and EMGS
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Analyzing performance and outcome measures mean
(?x)/n

• Arithmetic mean elbow-wrist flexion-extension
  task

elbow (flx-ext) 59 59 60 61 60 61 59 61
wrist (flx-ext) 57 58 62 63 64 66 54 61
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Computing errors for outcome and performance
measures

• The task has a specific goal and the participant
  receives a score.
• Constant error
• Absolute error
• Variable error

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Constant error (CE) directional bias

• Goal elbow-wrist flexion-extension task 60
  degrees of rotation

Elbow MT Error 1) 59 2) 59 3) 60 4) 61 5)
60 6) 61 7) 59 8) 61
Wrist MT Error 1) 57 2) 58 3) 62 4) 63 5)
64 6) 66 7) 54 8) 61
start ?CE end ?CE Mean CE
Mean CE
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Absolute error (AE) accuracy

• Goal elbow-wrist flexion-extension task 60
  degrees of rotation

Elbow MT Error 1) 59 2) 59 3) 60 4) 61 5)
60 6) 61 7) 59 8) 61
Wrist MT Error 1) 57 2) 58 3) 62 4) 63 5)
64 6) 66 7) 54 8) 61
start ?AE end ?AE Mean AE
Mean AE
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Variable error (VE) consistency

• Goal elbow-wrist flexion-extension task 60
  degrees of rotation

Wrist angle data MnCE score (Mn-sc) (Mn-sc)2
(Summed)/n sqrt
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Analyzing performance and outcome measures mean
(?x)/n

• Arithmetic mean simple reaction time (RT) scores

RT (sec.) .500 .450 .525 .475 .370 .600 .510 .490
RT (sec.) .210 .215 .225 .205 .202 .222 .217 .208
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Constant error (CE) directional bias

• Goal learn to complete an action in a specific
  time, MT1.5 secs

Start of practice MT Error 1) 1.2 sec 2) 1.9
sec 3) 1.3 sec 4) 1.1 sec 5) 1.1 sec
End of practice MT Error 1) 1.6 sec 2) 1.7
sec 3) 1.7 sec 4) 1.6 sec 5) 1.8 sec
start ?ce end ?ce Mean CE
Mean CE
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Absolute error (AE) accuracy

• Goal learn to complete a movement in a specific
  time, MT1.5 secs

End of practice MT Error 1) 1.6 sec 2) 1.7
sec 3) 1.7 sec 4) 1.6 sec 5) 1.8 sec
Start of practice MT Error 1) 1.2 sec 2) 1.9
sec 3) 1.3 sec 4) 1.1 sec 5) 1.1 sec
start ?ae end ?ae Mean AE
Mean AE
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Variable error (VE) consistency

• Goal learn to complete a movement in specific
  time, MT1.5 secs

Start of Practice data CE MnCE score
(Mn-sc) (Mn-sc)2 (Summed)/n sqrt

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Root mean square error (RMSE)tracking task
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10
0
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Root mean square error
RMSE cm
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Brain recordings

• EEG
• fMRI
• PET

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fMRI functional MRI - BOLD

• Blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD)

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Positron emission tomographyPET scan - rCBF
Kandel, Schwartz, Jessel (1991). Principles of
Neuroscience, Figure 22-5, pp .315
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PET scan and visual stimuli
Kandel, Schwartz, Jesse (1991). Principles of
Neuroscience, Figure 22-6, pp .316
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Chapter 4

• Neuromotor Basis of Motor Control

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Types and Functions of Neurons

• Three types of functional neurons

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Cerebral hemispheres
2.
1.
3.
4.
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Somatotopic maps cortex to musclesand sensation
to cortex
Penfield and Rasmussen (1950)
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Electroencephalography (EEG) movement preparation
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Cortex to muscles

• Crossing over of control signals

• Connectivity and surface area

Left-H.
Right-H.
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Motor planning and sequencing areas
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Anatomy and function MRI and PET
A.
B.
C.
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Continuous and discrete actions

• Schaal et al. (2004).
• 4 actions (Fig. 1A and 1B)

Rhythmic
Discrete
ext flx
ext flx
Discrete-Rest
Rhythmic-Rest
ext flx
ext flx
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Continuous and discrete actions brain activity
patterns

• Bilateral activity
• Unilateral activity

Schaal et al. (2004). Figure 2C
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Subcortical structures
Basal ganglia 4 components
Thalamus
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Brain stem and cerebellum
spinal cord
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Cerebellum and timing

• Ivry et al., (2002). Spencer et al., (2003).
• Discrete tapping
• Continuous motion
• Why is this difference important?

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Alpha (a) motor neuron

• Input

• Conduction

• output

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Spinal cord sensory-motor information flow
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Muscle fibers and motor neurons
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Features of the motor unit

• 420,000
• 252,000,000
• Average ratio
• Force output

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Force production The size principleand motor
unit activation
Fine movements
Explosive movement
Endurance movement
Firing rate
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Spinal circuitry and Final common path

• Reflexes
• Interneurons

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Stretch reflex mono-synaptic
ext
ext
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Interneurons and information divergence
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Crossed-extensor reflex divergence
ext
flx
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Information feedback inhibition
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Final common path information convergence
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Hierarchy of the Motor System

• Strategy
• Tactics
• Execution

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Chapter 9

• Attention as a limited capacity resource

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Two main aspects of attention

• Splitting attention
• Focusing of attention

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Information processing model

• 3 stage model of cognitive motor processes

CNS
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Splitting attention

• Dual task paradigm

SP
RS
RP
SP
RS
RP
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Splitting attention a simple motor task

• Force output and attention (Leob, 1886)
• The dual task
• Variables
• Finding

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Splitting attention a clinical setting

• Geurts and Mulder (1994) relearning
• What is an appropriate Dual task?
• Variables
• 8 weeks of rehabilitation therapy

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CoP (sway) and attention
CoP Velocity
2 weeks
8 weeks
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Cell phone and drivingWhy talking and driving
dont mix!

• Reaction time
• Red lights
• Cell phone bigger impact than!
• Brain activity

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Central-resource capacity Flexible allocation
(Kahneman 1973)

• Cognitive effort

driving

• Rules of allocation

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Multiple-resource theories (Wickens 1992)
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Arousal, attention and performance

• Levels of arousal

Performance
arousal
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Focusing Attention

• Width
• Direction
• Switching
• Automaticity

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Neural basis of attention

• Reticular activation system (red lines)
• Emerges from the reticular formation in brainstem

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Chapter 10

• Memory components, forgetting, and strategies

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Principles of human remembering and forgetting

• What are the functional roles of memory?
• How are memories encoded, stored, and recalled
  based on these functional roles?
• Comparison of verbal and motor memory

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Multiple memory model

• Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
• Baddeley (1986, 1995)

Working Memory
Long-term memory
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Working memory (WM) characteristics

• Duration
• Capacity
• Action example - Ille and Cadopi (1999)

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Long-term memory (LTM) characteristics

• Functional LTM systems
• Knowledge
• Capacity and Duration

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Separation of LTM knowledge types

• H.M. (1950s)
• Task mirror drawing
• H.M. learned and improved

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H.M. and motor skill learning

• Mirror tracing
• Retention tests

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Remembering and forgetting

• Encoding
• Retrieval
• Forgetting

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Encoding Categorization of actions

• Magill and Lee (1987)

• Free recall

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Encoding verbal cues and actions

• Shea (1977) - lever positioning task without
  vision
• 3 verbal cues labels

• Recall interval

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Verbal cues as mnemonics for movements
5 sec
60 sec
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Increasing WM capacity subjective organization
(chunking)

• Starkes et al (1987)
• Who remembers the most (produces the most) under
  a given condition?

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Proactive interference WM

• Location and distance

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Retroactive interference WM
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Retroactive interference motor task

• Stelmach and Kelso (1970)

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Interfering with motor consolidation

• Muellbacher et al (2002) TMS study
• Task
• Goal
• Issue

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TMS immediately after practice

• Hypothesis Activity in the primary motor cortex
  after practice is important for the consolidation
  of an action.
• Experimental group -TMS
• Control group - TMS
• 3 Practice sessions

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TMS long delay after practice

• Hypothesis The importance of motor cortex
  activity decays with time in consolidating an
  action.
• Experimental group
• Control group
• 1 Practice session

6-hr rest
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Attention, memory, and learning

• Foerde et al. (2006).
• Dual task paradigm shape sorting task
• fMRI data

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Neuro-anatomical regions and memory

• No-distraction
• Secondary task
• Multitasking

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The end

• Material for Test 1

Chapters 1, 2, 4, 9, and 10