The Human Body Systems

1
The Human Body Systems
2
The Integumentary System
3
Section 34.1 Summary pages 893-898

• Skin, the main organ of the integumentary (inh TE
  gyuh MEN tuh ree) system, is considered to be the
  largest organ in the human body.

• Epithelial tissue, found in the outer layer of
  the skin, functions to cover surfaces of the body.

4
Section 34.1 Summary pages 893-898

• Skin is composed of two principal layersthe
  epidermis and dermis.

Epidermis
Dermis
5
Section 34.1 Summary pages 893-898

• The interior layer of the epidermis contains
  living cells that continually divide to replace
  the dead cells.

• Some of these cells contain melanin, a pigment
  that colors the skin and helps protect body cells
  from damage by solar radiation.

• Every four weeks, all cells of the epidermis are
  replaced by new cells.

6
Section 34.1 Summary pages 893-898

• The epidermis on the fingers and palms of your
  hands, and on the toes and soles of your feet,
  contain ridges and grooves that are formed before
  birth.

• These epidermal ridges are important for gripping
  as they increase friction.

7
Section 34.1 Summary pages 893-898

• One function of skin is to help maintain
  homeostasis by regulating your internal body
  temperature.

• When your body temperature rises, the many small
  blood vessels in the dermis dilate, blood flow
  increases, and body heat is lost by radiation.

8
Section 34.1 Summary pages 893-898

• When you are cold, the blood vessels in the skin
  constrict and heat is conserved.

• Glands in the dermis produce sweat in response to
  an increase in body temperature.

• As sweat evaporates, water changes state from
  liquid to vapor and heat is lost.

9
Section 34.1 Summary pages 893-898

• When exposed to ultraviolet light, skin cells
  produce vitamin D, a nutrient that aids the
  absorption of calcium into the bloodstream.

• Skin also serves as a protective layer to
  underlying tissues.

• It shields the body from physical and chemical
  damage and from invasion by microbes.

10
Section 34.1 Summary pages 893-898

• Cuts or other openings in the skin surface allow
  bacteria to enter the body, so they must be
  repaired quickly.

11
Section 34.1 Summary pages 893-898

• When the epidermis sustains a mild injury, such
  as a scrape, the deepest layer of epidermal cells
  divide to help fill in the gap left by the
  abrasion.

• If, however, the injury extends into the dermis,
  where blood vessels are found, bleeding usually
  occurs.

12
Section 34.1 Summary pages 893-898

• Healing the dermis after injury occurs in a
  series of stages.

Blood clot

• Blood flows out of the wound until a clot forms.

13
Section 34.1 Summary pages 893-898

• A scab soon develops, creating a barrier between
  bacteria on the skin and underlying tissues.

Scab
14
Section 34.1 Summary pages 893-898

• New skin cells begin repairing the wound from
  beneath.

New skin cells
Scab

• A scar may form if the wound is large.

15
The Skeletal System
16
Section 34.2 Summary pages 899-904

• The adult human skeleton contains about 206
  bones.

17
Section 34.2 Summary pages 899-904

• In vertebrates, joints are found where two or
  more bones meet.

• Most joints facilitate the movement of bones in
  relation to one another.

• The joints of the skull, on the other hand, are
  fixed, as the bones of the skull dont move.

18
Section 34.2 Summary pages 899-904

• Tendons, which are thick bands of connective
  tissue, attach muscles to bones.

19
Section 34.2 Summary pages 899-904

• The primary function of your skeleton is to
  provide a framework for the tissues of your body.

• The skeleton also protects your internal
  organs, including your heart, lungs, and
  brain.

20
Section 34.2 Summary pages 899-904

• Muscles that move the body need firm points of
  attachment to pull against so they can work
  effectively.

• The skeleton provides these attachment points.

21
Section 34.2 Summary pages 899-904

• Bones also produce blood cells.

• Red marrowfound in the humerus, femur,
  sternum, ribs, vertebrae, and pelvisis the
  production site for red blood cells, white
  blood cells, and platelets (cell fragments
  involved in blood clotting).

22
Section 34.2 Summary pages 899-904

• Your bones serve as storehouses for minerals,
  including calcium and phosphate.

• Calcium is needed to form strong, healthy bones
  and is therefore an important part of your diet.

23
The Muscular System
24
Section 34.3 Summary pages 905-909

• Nearly half of your body mass is muscle.

Smooth muscle fiber

• A muscle consists of groups of fibers, or cells,
  bound together.

Nucleus

• One type of tissue, smooth muscle, is found in
  the walls of your internal organs and blood
  vessels.

25
Section 34.3 Summary pages 905-909

• The most common function of smooth muscle is to
  squeeze, exerting pressure on the space inside
  the tube or organ it surrounds in order to move
  material through it.

Large and Small Intestine
26
Section 34.3 Summary pages 905-909

• Because contractions of smooth muscle are not
  under conscious control, smooth muscle is
  considered an involuntary muscle.

Large and Small Intestine
27
Section 34.3 Summary pages 905-909
Cardiac muscle fiber

• Another type of involuntary muscle is the cardiac
  muscle, which makes up your heart.

Striation

• Cardiac muscle fibers are interconnected and form
  a network that helps the heart muscle contract
  efficiently.

Nucleus
28
Section 34.3 Summary pages 905-909

• Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart and is
  adapted to generate and conduct electrical
  impulses necessary for its rhythmic contraction.

Heart
29
Section 34.3 Summary pages 905-909

• The third type of muscle tissue, skeletal muscle,
  is the type that is attached to and moves your
  bones.

Skeletal muscle fiber
Nucleus
Striation
30
Section 34.3 Summary pages 905-909

• A muscle that contracts under conscious control
  is called a voluntary muscle.

Skeletal Arm Muscle
31
Section 34.3 Summary pages 905-909

• Muscle strength does not depend on the number of
  fibers in a muscle.

• Rather, muscle strength depends on the thickness
  of the fibers and on how many of them contract at
  one time.

32
Section 34.3 Summary pages 905-909

• Regular exercise stresses muscle fibers slightly
  to compensate for this added workload, the fibers
  increase in diameter by adding myofibrils.

• Muscle cells are continually supplied with ATP
  from both aerobic and anaerobic processes.

33
Question 1
Which is the largest organ system?

• Muscle system
• Nervous system
• Skeletal system
• Integumentary system

34
Question 2
How many types of muscle tissue are there?

• 4
• 3
• 5
• 2

35
Question 3
The layer of skin that we see is the

• Dermis
• Hair follicle
• Epidermis

36
Question 4
Which of the following is not a function of the
Integumentary system?

• Support the human body
• Produce vitamin D
• Maintain homeostasis
• Protect internal organs and keep bacteria out.

37
Question 5
Smooth muscle is considered

• Cardiac muscle
• Involuntary muscle
• Voluntary muscle
• Both B C

38
Question 6
What is the primary function of the
skeletal system?

• Movement
• Protection
• Framework for your tissues

39
Question 7
What is the function of the muscular system?

• Movement
• Protection
• Framework for your tissues

40
The Digestive System
41
Section 35.1 Summary pages 917-923

• The main function of the digestive system is to
  disassemble the food you eat into its component
  molecules so that it can be used as energy for
  your body.

• Digestion is accomplished through a number of
  steps.

• First, the system takes ingested food and begins
  moving it through the digestive tract.

42
Section 35.1 Summary pages 917-923

• As it does so, it digests or breaks down
  mechanically and chemically, the complex food
  molecules.

• Then, the system absorbs the digested food and
  distributes it to your cells.

• Finally, it eliminates undigested materials from
  your body.

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Section 35.1 Summary pages 917-923
Salivary glands
Teeth
Mouth
Pharynx
Tongue
Esophagus
Diaphragm
Stomach
Liver
Pancreas
gallbladder
Small intestine
Large intestine
Appendix
Rectum
Anus
44
Section 35.1 Summary pages 917-923
Mouth

• The first stop along the digestive disassembly
  line is your mouth.

45
Section 35.1 Summary pages 917-923

• Swallowing forces food from your mouth into your
  throat and from there into you esophagus, a
  muscular tube that connects your mouth to your
  stomach.

46
Section 35.1 Summary pages 917-923

• When you swallow, the food enters the esophagus.

• Usually, a flap of cartilage called the
  epiglottis (ep uh GLAH tus) closes over the
  opening to the respiratory tract as you swallow,
  preventing food from entering.

47
Section 35.1 Summary pages 917-923

• If you talk or laugh as you swallow, the
  epiglottis may open, allowing food to enter the
  upper portion of the respiratory tract.

• Your response, a reflex, is to choke and cough,
  forcing the food out of the respiratory tube.

48
Section 35.1 Summary pages 917-923

• The stomach is a muscular, pouch-like enlargement
  of the digestive tract. Both physical and
  chemical digestion take place in the stomach.

Stomach
49
Section 35.1 Summary pages 917-923

• Food remains in your stomach for approximately
  two to four hours.

• When food is ready to leave the stomach, it is
  about the consistency of tomato soup.

• Peristaltic waves gradually become more vigorous
  and begin to force small amount of liquid out of
  the lower end of the stomach and into the small
  intestine.

50
Section 35.1 Summary pages 917-923

• From your stomach, the liquid food moves into
  your small intestine, a muscular tube about 6m
  long.

• Digestion of your meal is completed within the
  small intestine.

Small intestine
51
Section 35.1 Summary pages 917-923

• Liquid food stays in your small intestine for
  three to five hours and is slowly moved along its
  length by peristalsis.

• As digested food moves through the intestine, it
  passes over thousands of tiny fingerlike
  structures called villi.

52
Section 35.1 Summary pages 917-923

• Because the digested food is now in the form of
  small molecules, it can be absorbed directly into
  the cells of the villi.

• The food molecules then diffuse into the blood
  vessels of the villus and enter the bloodstream.

53
Section 35.1 Summary pages 917-923

• The villi are the link between the digestive
  system and the circulatory system.

Columnar epithelium
Lymph vessel
Blood vessel network
Fatty acids
Amino acids
Monosaccharides
54
Section 35.1 Summary pages 917-923

• The indigestible material now passes into your
  large intestine, a muscular tube that is also
  called the colon.

• Although the large intestine is only about 1.5m
  long, it is much wider than the small
  intestineabout 6.5 cm in diameter.

Large intestine
55
Section 35.1 Summary pages 917-923

• As the indigestible mixture passes through the
  large intestine, water and salts are absorbed by
  the intestinal walls, leaving behind a more solid
  material. In this way, the water is not wasted.

• Anaerobic bacteria in the large intestine
  synthesize some B vitamins and vitamin K, which
  are absorbed as needed by the body.

56
Section 35.1 Summary pages 917-923

• After 18 to 24 hours in the large intestine, the
  remaining indigestible material, now called
  feces, reaches the rectum.

• The rectum is the last part of the digestive
  system.

57
Section 35.1 Summary pages 917-923

• Feces are eliminated from the rectum through the
  anus.

Rectum
Anus
58
Nutrition
59
Section 35.2 Summary pages 924-928

• Six basic kinds of nutrients can be found in
  foods carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals,
  vitamins, and water.

Includes butter, oils, salad dressings, and soft
drinks

• You supply your body with these nutrients when
  you eat foods from the five main food groups.

60
Section 35.2 Summary pages 924-928
Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates are starches and sugars.

• Starches are complex carbohydrates found in
  bread, cereal, potatoes, rice, corn, beans, and
  pasta.

• Sugars are simple carbohydrates found mainly in
  fruits, such as plums, strawberries, and oranges.

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Section 35.2 Summary pages 924-928
Fats

• Fats are an essential nutrient. They provide
  energy for your body and are also used as
  building materials.

• Fats are essential building blocks of the cell
  membrane.

62
Section 35.2 Summary pages 924-928

• They are also needed to synthesize hormones,
  protect body organs against injury, and insulate
  the body from cold.

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Section 35.2 Summary pages 924-928
Proteins

• Enzymes, antibodies, many hormones, and
  substances that help the blood to clot, are all
  proteins.

• Proteins form part of muscles and many cell
  structures, including the cell membrane.

64
Section 35.2 Summary pages 924-928

• During digestion, proteins are broken down into
  amino acids.

• After the amino acids have been absorbed by the
  small intestine, they enter the bloodstream and
  are carried to the liver.

• The liver can convert amino acids to fats or
  glucose, both of which can be used for energy.

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Section 35.2 Summary pages 924-928

• Most amino acids are absorbed by cells and used
  for protein synthesis.

• The human body needs 20 different amino acids to
  carry out protein synthesis, but it can make only
  12 of them.

• The remaining 8 must be consumed in the diet and
  so are called essential amino acids.

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Section 35.2 Summary pages 924-928
Minerals and vitamins

• A mineral is an inorganic substance that serves
  as a building material or takes part in a
  chemical reaction in the body.

• Although they serve many different functions
  within the body, minerals are not used as an
  energy source.

67
Section 35.2 Summary pages 924-928

• Unlike minerals, vitamins are organic nutrients
  that are required in small amounts to maintain
  growth and metabolism.

• Although fat-soluble vitamins can be stored in
  the liver, the accumulation of excess amounts can
  prove toxic.

• Water-soluble vitamins cannot be stored in the
  body and so must be included regularly in the
  diet.

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Section 35.2 Summary pages 924-928
Water

• Water facilitates the chemical reactions in your
  body and is necessary for the breakdown of foods
  during digestion.

• Oxygen and nutrients from food could not enter
  your cells if they did not first dissolve in
  water.

69
Section 35.2 Summary pages 924-928

• Recall that water absorbs and releases heat
  slowly.

• It is this characteristic that helps water
  maintain your bodys internal temperature.

• Because the body contains so much water, it takes
  a lot of added energy to raise its internal
  temperature.

• Your body loses about 2.5 L of water per day
  through exhalation, sweat and urine.

70
The Endocrine System
71
Section 35.3 Summary pages 929-935

• Internal control of the body is directed by two
  systems the nervous system and the endocrine
  system.

• The endocrine system is made up of a series of
  glands, called endocrine glands, that release
  chemicals directly into the bloodstream.

72
Section 35.3 Summary pages 929-935

• The chemicals secreted by endocrine glands into
  the bloodstream are called hormones.

• Hormones convey information to other cells in
  your body, giving them instructions regarding
  your metabolism, growth, development, and
  behavior.

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Section 35.3 Summary pages 929-935

• Regulation of the endocrine system is controlled
  most often through one type of internal feedback
  mechanism called a negative feedback system.

• In a negative feedback system, the hormones, or
  their effects, are fed back to inhibit the
  original signal.

• Once homeostasis is reached, the signal is
  stopped and the hormone is no longer released.

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Section 35.3 Summary pages 929-935

• The majority of endocrine glands operate under
  negative feedback systems.

• A gland synthesizes and secretes its hormone,
  which travels in the blood to target cells where
  the appropriate response occurs.

• Information regarding the hormone level or its
  effect on target cells is fed back, usually to
  the hypothalamus or pituitary gland, to regulate
  the glands production of the hormone.

75
Question 1
Which systems function is to breakdown food
for the bodys use?

• Integumentary
• Muscular
• Digestive
• Endocrine

76
Question 2
Where does digestion start?

• The mouth
• The esophogus
• The stomach
• The small intestine

77
Question 3
Where is digestion completed?

• The mouth
• The esophogus
• The stomach
• The small intestine

78
Question 4
Are fats necessary for life?

• Yes
• No

79
Question 5
Which of these are broken down into amino acids?

• Carbohydrates
• Fats
• Protein
• Vitamins

80
Question 6
Can the human body make all the amino
acids needed for life?

• Yes
• No

81
Question 7
Which body system uses hormones?

• Respiratory
• Digestive
• Integumentary
• Endocrine

82
The Nervous System
83
Section 36.1 Summary pages 943 - 950

• Neurons conduct impulses throughout the nervous
  system.

Dendrite
Axon
Nucleus
Cell body
84
Section 36.1 Summary pages 943 - 950

• Dendrites are branchlike extensions of the
  neuron that receive impulses and carry
  them toward the cell body.

Dendrite
Axon
Cell body
Nucleus
85
Section 36.1 Summary pages 943 - 950

• The axon is an extension of the neuron that
  carries impulses away from the cell body and
  toward other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Dendrite
Axon
Cell body
Nucleus
86
Section 36.1 Summary pages 943 - 950
Relaying an impulse

• The nervous system sorts and interprets incoming
  information before directing a response.

87
Section 36.1 Summary pages 943 - 950
The Central Nervous System
The CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord.
Cerebrum
Skull
Spinal cord
Vertebra
Medulla oblongata
Cerebellum
88
Section 36.1 Summary pages 943 - 950

• Another division of your nervous system, called
  the peripheral nervous system, is made up of all
  the nerves that carry messages to and from the
  central nervous system.

89
Section 36.1 Summary pages 943 - 950
Brain

• Together, the central nervous system (CNS) and
  the peripheral nervous system (PNS) respond to
  stimuli from the external environment.

Spinal cord
90
Section 36.1 Summary pages 943 - 950

• The peripheral nervous system can be separated
  into two divisionsthe somatic nervous system and
  the autonomic nervous system.

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Section 36.1 Summary pages 943 - 950
Brain (CNS)

• The nerves of the somatic system relay
  information mainly between your skin, the CNS,
  and skeletal muscles.

Spinal cord (CNS)
Spinal nerves (PNS)
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Section 36.1 Summary pages 943 - 950
Brain (CNS)

• This pathway is voluntary, meaning that you can
  decide whether or not to move body parts under
  the control of this system.

Spinal cord (CNS)
Spinal nerves (PNS)
93
Section 36.1 Summary pages 943 - 950

• The autonomic nervous system carries impulses
  from the CNS to internal organs.

• These impulses produce responses that are
  involuntary, or not under conscious control.

94
Section 1 Check
Question 1
What makes up the central nervous system?
A. all of the nerves of your body
B. only those nerves found in the center of
your body
C. the brain and spinal cord
D. white and gray matter
95
Question 2
receive impulses and carry
them toward the cell body.

• Dendrites
• Axons
• Neurons
• Cell body

96
Question 3
If you touch a hot piece of metal your
nervous system tells you to pull back your
hand.

• Somatic nervous system
• Autonomic nervous system
• Dendrites
• Axons

97
Question 4
While you are sleeping at night which part of
your nervous system keeps your organs going?

• Somatic nervous system
• Autonomic nervous system
• Dendrites
• Axons

98
The Respiratory System
99
Section 37.1 Summary pages 971-974

• Your respiratory system is made of a pair of
  lungs and a series of passageways, each one
  extending deeper into your body. These
  passageways include the nasal passages, the
  throat, the windpipe, and the bronchi.

• Breathing is just one of the functions that the
  respiratory system carries out.

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Section 37.1 Summary pages 971-974

• Respiration, the process of gas exchange, is
  another important function performed by the
  respiratory system.

Pharynx
Nasal cavity
Medulla oblongata
Epiglottis
Larynx
Esophagus
Trachea
Bronchus
Right lung
Bronchiole
Left lung
Diaphragm
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Section 37.1 Summary pages 971-974

• The first step in the process of respiration
  involves taking air into your body through your
  nose or mouth.

• Air flows into the pharynx, or throat, passes the
  epiglottis, and moves through the larynx.

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Section 37.1 Summary pages 971-974

• It then travels down the windpipe, or trachea
  (TRAY kee uh), a tubelike passageway that leads
  to two tubes, or bronchi (BRAHN ki) (singular,
  bronchus), which lead into the lungs.

• When you swallow food, the epiglottis covers the
  entrance to the trachea, which prevents food from
  getting into the air passages.

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Section 37.1 Summary pages 971-974

• To prevent foreign material from reaching the
  lungs, the nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi are
  lined with ciliated cells that secrete mucus.

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Section 37.1 Summary pages 971-974

• Alveoli (al VEE uh li) are the sacs of the lungs
  where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged by
  diffusion between the air and blood.

• The clusters of alveoli are surrounded by
  networks of tiny blood vessels, or capillaries.

105
The Circulatory System
106
Section 37.2 Summary pages 975-984

• Your blood is a tissue composed of fluid, cells,
  and fragments of cells.

Table 37.1 Blood Components
Components
Characteristics
Transport oxygen and some carbon dioxide lack a
nucleus contain hemoglobin
Red blood cells
Large several different types all contain
nuclei defend the body against disease
White blood cells
Cell fragments needed for blood clotting
Platelets
Liquid contains proteins transports red and
white blood cells, platelets, nutrients, enzymes,
hormones, gases, and inorganic salts
Plasma

• The fluid portion of blood is called plasma.

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Section 37.2 Summary pages 975-984

• Plasma is straw colored and makes up about 55
  percent of the total volume of blood.

• Blood cells-both red and white-and cell fragments
  are suspended in plasma.

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Section 37.2 Summary pages 975-984
Side view

• The round, disk-shaped cells in blood are red
  blood cells.

Top view

• Red blood cells carry oxygen to body cells.

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Section 37.2 Summary pages 975-984

• They make up 44 percent of the total volume of
  your blood, and are produced in the red bone
  marrow of your ribs, humerus, femur sternum, and
  other long bones.

• Red blood cells remain active in the bloodstream
  for about 120 days, then they break down and are
  removed as waste.

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Section 37.2 Summary pages 975-984

• White blood cells play a major role in protecting
  your body from foreign substances and from
  microscopic organisms that cause disease.

White Blood Cells

• They make up only one percent of the total volume
  of your blood.

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Section 37.2 Summary pages 975-984

• The three main types of blood vessels are
  arteries, capillaries, and veins.

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Section 37.2 Summary pages 975-984

• Arteries are large, thick-walled, muscular,
  elastic blood vessels that carry blood away from
  the heart.

• The blood that they carry is under great pressure.

• As the heart contracts, it pushes blood through
  the arteries.

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Section 37.2 Summary pages 975-984

• Veins are large blood vessels that carry blood
  from the tissues back toward the heart.

Vein
Capillary
114
Section 37.2 Summary pages 975-984

• Blood in veins is not under pressure as great as
  that in the arteries.

• In some veins, especially those in your arms and
  legs, blood travels uphill against gravity.

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Section 37.2 Summary pages 975-984

• The main function of the heart is to keep blood
  moving constantly throughout the body.

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Section 37.2 Summary pages 975-984

• All mammalian hearts, including yours, have four
  chambers.

• The two upper chambers of the heart are the atria.

• The two lower chambers are the ventricles.

• The walls of each atrium are thinner and less
  muscular than those of each ventricle.

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Section 37.2 Summary pages 975-984

• The ventricles perform more work than the atria,
  a factor that helps explain the thickness of
  their muscles.

• Each atrium pumps blood into the corresponding
  ventricle.

• The left ventricle pumps blood to the entire
  body, so its muscles are thicker than those of
  the right ventricle, which pumps blood to the
  lungs.

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Section 37.2 Summary pages 975-984

• Blood enters the heart through the atria and
  leaves it through the ventricles.

• Both atria fill up with blood at the same time.

• The right atrium receives oxygen-poor blood from
  the head and body through two large veins called
  the venae cavae (vee nee KAY vee).

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Section 37.2 Summary pages 975-984

• After they have filled with blood, the two atria
  then contract, pushing the blood down into the
  two ventricles.

• After the ventricles have filled with blood, they
  contract simultaneously.

• When the right ventricle contracts, it pushes the
  oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle out of
  the heart and toward the lungs through the
  pulmonary arteries.

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Section 37.2 Summary pages 975-984

• At the same time, the left ventricle forcefully
  pushes oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle
  out of the heart through the aorta to the
  arteries of the body. The aorta is the largest
  blood vessel in the body.

Superior vena cava
Pulmonary artery
Aorta
Pulmonary vein
LA
RA
LV
RV
Capillaries
Inferior vena cava
Left lung
Right lung
121
The Excretory System
122
Section 37.3 Summary pages 985-987

• The excretory system is made up of two kidneys, a
  pair of ureters, the urinary bladder, and the
  urethra.

• The kidneys filter the blood to remove wastes
  from it, thus maintaining the homeostasis of body
  fluids.

• Each kidney is connected to a tube called a
  ureter, which leads to the urinary bladder.

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Section 37.3 Summary pages 985-987

• The urinary bladder is a smooth muscle bag that
  stores a solution of wastes.

Vena cava
Aorta
Renal artery
Kidney
Ureters
Renal vein
Urinary bladder
Urethra
124
Section 37.3 Summary pages 985-987

• Urine passes from the urinary bladder out of the
  body through a tube called the urethra (yoo REE
  thruh).

Collecting duct to ureter
Urea
water
Blood cell, water, salts, nutrients, urea
Artery
salts
Water
Nutrients
Capillaries
Salts
Vein
Nutrients
Urine Urea, excess water, salts
Blood cells, water, salts, nutrients
Tubule
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Section 37.3 Summary pages 985-987

• The major waste products of cells are nitrogenous
  wastes, which come from the breakdown of proteins.

• These wastes include ammonia and urea.

• Both compounds are toxic to your body and,
  therefore, must be removed from the blood
  regularly.

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Chapter Assessment
Question 1
What organ(s) are reddish in color and located
just above the waist, behind the stomach?
A. kidneys
B. lungs
C. heart
D. ureters
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Question 2
Which system contains lungs and the diaphram?

• Circulatory system
• Respiratory system
• Muscular system
• Digestive system

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Question 3
The function of this system is to remove wastes
from your body.

• Circulatory
• Excretory
• Digestive
• Respiratory

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Question 4
Which blood component helps fights infection?

• Red blood cells
• Plasma
• Platelets
• White blood cells

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Question 5
The majority of blood consists of

• Red blood cells
• Plasma
• Platelets
• White blood cells

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Question 6
carry blood away from the
heart.

• Veins
• Capillaries
• Arteries

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Question 7
The 2 lower chambers of the human heart are

• Ventricles
• Atria
• Vena Cava
• Aortic valves

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Question 8
Kidneys, ureters, and the urinary bladder are all
parts of the system.

• Respiratory
• Circulatory
• Digestive
• Excretory

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The Reproductive System
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Section 38.1 Summary pages 995-1004
Sperm
Head

• The ultimate result of the reproductive process
  is the formation and union of egg and sperm,
  development of the fetus, and birth of the infant.

Nucleus
Tail
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Section 38.1 Summary pages 995-1004

• A sperm is highly adapted for reaching and
  entering the female egg.

• The head portion of a sperm contains the nucleus
  and is covered by a cap containing enzymes that
  help penetrate the egg.

• A number of mitochondria are found in the
  midpiece of the sperm they provide energy for
  locomotion.

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Section 38.2 Summary pages 1005-1011

• Of the sperm that reach the uterus, only a
  few hundred pass into the two oviducts.

• The egg is present in one of them.

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Section 38.2 Summary pages 1005-1011

• Once one sperm has entered the egg, the
  electrical charge of the eggs membrane
  changes, preventing other sperm from entering
  the egg.

• The sperms nucleus then combines with the
  eggs nucleus to form a zygote that contains a
  complete array of genetic information.

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Section 38.2 Summary pages 1005-1011

• A growing fetus exchanges nutrients, oxygen,
  and wastes with the mother through the placenta.

• Nutrients, oxygen, and wastes diffuse across
  maternal and fetal blood vessels and are carried
  to and from the fetus through the umbilical
  cord.

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The Immune System
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Section 39.1 Summary pages 1023-1030

• When a pathogen invades your body, it encounters
  your immune system.

• If the pathogen overcomes the defenses of your
  immune system, it can metabolize and multiply,
  causing damage to the tissues it has invaded, and
  even killing host cells.

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Section 39.2 Summary pages 1031-1041

• Intact skin is a formidable physical barrier
  to the entrance of microorganisms.

• In addition to the skin, pathogens also
  encounter your bodys secretions of mucus, oil,
  sweat, tears, and saliva.

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Section 39.2 Summary pages 1031-1041

• Because mucus is slightly viscous (thick), it
  also traps many microorganisms and other foreign
  substances that enter the respiratory and
  digestive tracts.

• Mucus is continually swallowed and passed to
  the stomach, where acidic gastric juice
  destroys most bacteria and their toxins.

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Section 39.2 Summary pages 1031-1041

• Sweat, tears, and saliva all contain the
  enzyme lysozyme, which is capable of breaking
  down the cell walls of some bacteria.

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Section 39.2 Summary pages 1031-1041

• If a pathogen manages to get past the skin and
  body secretions, your body has several other
  nonspecific defense mechanisms that can
  destroy the invader and restore homeostasis.

• The cells of your innate immune system
  continually survey your body for foreign
  invaders.

• When a pathogen is detected, these cells begin
  defending your body right away.

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Section 39.2 Summary pages 1031-1041

• The tonsils are large clusters of lymph tissue
  located at the back of the mouth cavity and at
  the back of the throat.

Tonsils

• They form a protective ring around the openings
  of the nasal and oral cavities.

• Tonsils provide protection against bacteria and
  other pathogens that enter your nose and mouth.

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Section 2 Check
Question 1
What is the bodys first line of defense
against diseases?
A. white blood cells
B. the skin
C. interferons
D. lymphocytes
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Question 2
Eggs and sperm are part of the
system.

• Digestive
• Endocrine
• Excretory
• Reproductive

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Question 3
You have come in contact with a pathogen (virus).
Which body system will attack it in order to
maintain homeostasis?

• Immune
• Skeletal
• Integumentary
• Endocrine