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Meta-Analysis

• Descriptive meta-analysis based on 240 studies,
  representing ? 265,000 cases/persons

The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 2
3
The State of the Art of Stalking And Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit
Theory Brian H. Spitzberg, Ph.D., School of
Communication San Diego State University

• Descriptive meta-analysis based on 247 studies,
  representing ? 265,000 cases/persons

The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 3
4
Stalking Versus ORI

• Stalking An unwanted and fear-inducing
  intentional pattern of intrusions or
  communication imposed on another (Mullen et al.,
  2000)
• Obsessive Relational Intrusion Unwanted pursuit
  of intimacy through repeated intrusions of
  privacy (Spitzberg Cupach, 2001, 2002)

Stalking need not seek intimacy
ORI need not cause fear or threat
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 4
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Stalking Prevalence
META-ANALYSIS Clinical/ Forensic SD General Population SD College Samples SD
SAMPLE STALKED 35 32 29 25 25 28
FEMALE VICTIMS 57 29 39 23 29 29
MALE VICTIMS 19 14 10 15 16 13
THREAT USE 51 51 37 21 27 16
PHYSICAL VIOLENCE 41 54 29 16 22 25
SEXUAL VIOLENCE 12 27 9 11 13 8
DURATION (Mos.) 17 21 14 8 4 3
KNOWN TO VICTIM 85 55 79 22 79 19
MALE PERPETRATOR 80 52 73 12 61 19
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 5
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Cyber-Stalking Prevalence
All Stalking Harassment
Any cyber-stalking or monitoring
Cyber-stalking 26.6 26.1 27.4
Electronic monitoring 23.4 21.5 26.4
of cyber-stalking involving a
E-mail 82.6 82.5 82.7
Instant messaging 28.7 35.1 20.7
Blogs or bulletin boards 12.5 12.3 12.8
Internet sites re victim 8.8 9.4 8.1
Chat rooms 4.0 4.4 3.4
of monitoring involving b
Computer spyware 44.1 33.6 81.0
Video/digital cameras 40.3 46.3 19.3
Listening devices 35.8 41.8 14.8
GPS 9.7 10.9 5.2
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 6
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Sex Differences

• Females are 78 of victims (n82)
• Males are 76 of pursuers (n72).
• Perhaps males are?
• Pigs?
• less fearful of stalking,
• less likely to define stalking as stalking,
• more embarrassed to report,
• more pursuer, females more gatekeeper

(Bjerregaard, 00 Cupach Spitzberg, 00 Davis
et al., 2002 Sinclair Frieze, 00 Tjaden
Thoennes, 00 Tjaden et al., 00)
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 7
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Sex Differences

• A meta-analysis of 25 college samples (n gt
  7,000) mostly SDSU college students, found
• Females find ORI more threatening than males do
• Females find male pursuers as more threatening
  than males find female pursuers
• Pursuers report perpetrating unwanted pursuit
  on females more than on males
• But female victims do not report more ORI or
  self-labeled stalking than males victims
  report
• And females and males do not differ in
  self-attributions of having engaged in stalking

The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 8
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Interactional Profile
Intimacy Normal ORI/Stalking Dimension Relati
onships Relationships
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 9
10
Interactional Profile
Intimacy Normal ORI/Stalking Dimension Relati
onships Relationships
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 10
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(gt 250 tactic labels, study N 40, Spitzberg,
2002)
ORI/Stalking Topography

1. HYPER-INTIMACY TACTICS
2. MEDIATED CONTACTS
3. INTERACTIONAL CONTACT TACTICS
4. SURVEILLANCE TACTICS
5. INVASION TACTICS
6. HARASSMENT INTIMIDATION
7. COERCION THREAT TACTICS
8. AGGRESSION/VIOLENCE TACTICS

IX. p P U R R O S X U Y I T
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 11
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Violence Threats

• Threat use 44 (n91)
• Sexual aggression 12 (n47)
• Violence 34 (n98)

• gt 50 with prior sexual relationship (Meloy,
  2000 Rosenfeld, 2006)
• Threats predict violence (r .37) (n73, plt.001)
  

• However
• false positive rates 62 (n 12)
• false negative rates 16 (n 10) (CS, 2004)

The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 12
13

• Motives The desires of the heart are as crooked
  as corkscrews (W.H. Auden, 1937)

• INSTRUMENTAL (persecutory1, predatory2,
  revenge3)
• Agenda (issue-based, disputes)
• Control (intimidation, isolation, possession)
• Instrumental Affect (attention-seeking, harass,
  humiliate, revenge, jealousy possessiveness,
  scare)
• EXPRESSIVE (amorous1, affective2, love3)
• Affective (love, infatuation, jealousy, envy)
• Affective (anger, rage, betrayal, grief)
• Relational Bid (friendship, escalation,
  reconciliation)
• Sexual Attraction

1Harmon et al. 98 2Meloy 01 3Rosenfeld 00
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 13
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• Motives
• The desires of the heart are as crooked as
  corkscrews
• (W.H. Auden, 1937)

• PERSONALOGICAL
• Incompetence mental disorder, social
  incompetence
• CONTEXTUAL
• Break-up/separation/divorce
• Incidental
• Interactional
• Interdependence
• Nostalgia
• Rival

1Harmon et al. 98 2Meloy 01 3Rosenfeld 00
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 14
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Relational Goals Theory
RELATIONAL ENTITLEMENT PROPRIETARINESS
SELF-EFFICACY
GOAL LINKING
RUMIN-ATION
DETERM-INATION
ORI
IDENTITY THREAT
COGNITIVE
AFFECTIVE
HYPER-INTIMACY
AGGRES-SION
SURVEIL-LANCE
SENSI-TIVITY
BLAME
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 15
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Relational Goals Theory

• Kam Spitzberg (2005)
• GOAL LINKAGE (Investment Size, Commitment,
  Inclusion, Dependence, Relationship Thinking,
  Goal Linkage) predicted
• REJECTION-BASED AROUSAL (Perceived Rejection,
  Face Threat, Negative Arousal), which predicted
• RUMINATION ESCALATION (Thought Intrusion,
  Paradoxical Rebound), which predicted
• OBSESSION (Low CLALT, Obsession), which we hoped
  would predict
• ORI PERPETRATION
• RESULTS Optimal scaling regression (due to
  restricted variance of DV) accounted for 28 of
  the variance in ORI perpetration

The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 16
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Relational Goals Theory

• Cupach, Spitzberg, Younghans, Gibbons (2006)
• GOAL LINKAGE
• RUMINATION ANTICIPATORY EMOTIONS
• SELF-EFFICACY
• EMOTIONAL FLOODING
• RECONCILIATION PERSISTENCE
• ORI PERPETRATION
• MODERATOR Who initiated the breakup
• RESULTS
• 59 reconciliation persistence accounted for by
  linking, rumination, and self-efficacy for those
  whose partner wanted out (vs. 32 for Ss who
  wanted out)
• 16 ORI accounted for by linking, rumination, and
  self-efficacy, with no moderation

The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 17
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Effects/Symptoms
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 18
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Effects/Symptoms

• GENERAL DISTURBANCE e.g., injured emotionally or
  psychologically personality changed PTSD
  quality of life costs etc.
• AFFECTIVE HEALTH e.g., anger anxiety,
  depression, fear, frustration, feeling
  imprisoned, intimidated, jealousy, paranoia,
  stress, etc.
• COGNITIVE HEALTH e.g., confusion distrust, loss
  of self-esteem, suspiciousness,
  helplessness/powerlessness suicide ideation,
  etc.
• BEHAVIORAL DISTURBANCE e.g., changing behavioral
  routines, change work/school/residence, etc.
• PHYSICAL HEALTH e.g., alcohol problems appetite
  disturbance cigarette smoking insomnia nausea
  physical illness suicide etc.
• SOCIAL HEALTH e.g., avoid certain places/people
  cautiousness relationship deterioration
  lifestyle disruption etc.
• RESOURCE HEALTH e.g., disruption of work or
  school financial costs lost time from work
  etc.
• SPIRITUAL HEALTH e.g., loss of faith, loss of
  religion, loss of belief in social institutions
  etc.
• RESILIENCE e.g., develop stronger relationships
  with family or friends, develop greater
  self-efficacy/self-concept, etc.

The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 19
20
Moving With
B
A
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 20
21
Moving Inward
B
A
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 21
22
Moving Against
B
A
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 22
23
Moving Away
B
A
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 23
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Moving Outward
B
A
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 24
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CopingPrevalence

• Moving Against Attempting to deter/punish
  pursuer 33
• Moving With Attempting to negotiate/redirect
  relationship 25
• Moving Away Attempting to avoid pursuer 25
• Moving Outward Mobilizing assistance/input of
  others 32
• Moving Inward Working on oneself 17

(gt 18 studies, Spitzberg, 2002)
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 25
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Law Enforcement
Contacts M N SD
Contact someone 75 8 22
Friends/family contact 59 14 25
Contact police 42 41 26
Police helpful 47 7 30
Police NOT helpful 45 5 15

• Reason for not reporting 8 attacker was a
  police officer
  (NVAW, Tjaden Thoennes, 2000, Extent Ex.
  17, n 16,000)
• Reason why police didnt take action 6
  offender was police officer (Suppl.
  Victimization Survey, Baum et al., 2009, App.
  12, n 65,000)

The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 26
27
Law Enforcement
Protective Orders (PO) M N SD
Sought PO 45 15 36
POs Violated 38 24 25
POs Made Worse 17 5 5
Study of DV POs in Arizona indicates even when
violated, most women FEEL better for obtaining a
protective order (Johnson, Luna Stein, 2003).
The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 27
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Further Information

• Brian H. Spitzberg,
• Ph.D., SDSU Senate Distinguished Professor
• spitz_at_mail.sdsu.edu
• To contribute to the meta-analytic data-base
• http//www.surveymonkey.com/s.aspx?smX4GrMTqoMLI
  jAEujNEs7AQ_3d_3d

The State of the Art of Stalking and Special
Focus on the Relational Goal Pursuit Theory
BRIAN H. SPITZBERG, Ph.D. 28