Accelerated Language and Culture Learning: Shortcut Methods vs' DeadEnd Methods

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Accelerated Languageand Culture
LearningShortcut Methods vs. Dead-End Methods

• Ray Clifford
• Accelerated Learning Workshop
• Alexandria, VA
• 23 July 2008

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What is Accelerated Learning?

• Compared to traditional instruction,
  accelerated learning programs
• Incorporate lessons learned from operational
  experience of the force.
• Are particularly relevant to mission rehearsal.
• My interpretation Accelerated Learning programs
  have defined, real-world learning outcomes.

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What is Accelerated Learning?

• Compared to traditional instruction,
  accelerated learning allows learners to
• Reach specified criterion levels of competency
  more efficiently.
• Retain skills and knowledge for that specified
  level of competency longer and more completely.
• Better transfer and generalize their learning.
• My interpretation With Accelerated Learning,
  learners reach specified learning outcomes
  faster, retain those abilities, and can transfer
  them to new situations.

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This could be very Important!

• International research shows that appropriate
  time on task (time plus deliberate practice) is
  the best predictor of successful language
  learning.
• Ability-based incremental practice.
• Diagnostic, formative feedback.
• Time is a major variable, so saving time could
  have a major impact on instructional programs.

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International Research on Learning French

• John B. Carroll, The Teaching of French in Eight
  Countries (International Studies in Evaluation V)
  John Wiley Sons, New York, 1975.
• Study tested for the effect of various teaching
  methods, but found instead that the primary
  factor in the attainment of proficiency in French
  (and presumably, any foreign language) is the
  amount of instructional time provided. Page
  276

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International Research on Learning English

• G. Bonnet, et al. The Assessment of Pupils
  skills in English in Eight European Countries
  2002. European Network of Policy makers for the
  Evaluation of Education Systems, 2004.
• Students from those nations with mandatory
  English instruction, where there is more contact
  with (and more time spent using) English have
  higher levels of competence in English.
• When classroom instruction is combined with a
  language-rich environment, time spent using the
  language in and out of the classroom is more
  important than the teaching methods used in the
  classroom.

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Research on Adults Learning English

• Sarah Young. Effects of Instructional Hours and
  Intensity of Instruction on NRS Level Gain in
  Listening and Speaking, CALdigest. Center for
  Applied Linguistics. Washington, DC. December
  2007, p. 1.
• Analyzed Best Plus standardized speaking
  proficiency data from the National Reporting
  System for Adult Education.
• Results showed that across NRS educational
  functioning levels, the greater the number of
  instructional hours, the higher the percentage of
  students who made at least a level gain.

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What Do We Know About Language?

• Language is more than
• Morphology.
• Syntax.
• Pronunciation.
• Orthography.
• Lexicon.
• Language is an inherently ambiguous communication
  system that draws on all of the above and on
  shared cultural contexts and societal values to
  establish meaning.

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Learning a second language includes learning the
culture.

• Intra-language culture. Those numerous elements
  of the culture (including values and beliefs)
  that are only manifest and demonstrable through
  the language.
• Inter-linguistic culture. Based on knowledge of
  the second language, knowing what to say and what
  not to say in English, so that what is said will
  be accurately understood by speakers of the
  second language.

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Can one learn the culturewithout learning the
language?

• Extra-linguistic culture. Those elements of the
  culture that are observable without a knowledge
  of the language.
• Gestures.
• Dress.
• Dietary practices.
• Belief and behavior stereotypes.
• Political history.

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• Language is arguably the most complex of all
  human behaviors.
• Even professional translators can make mistakes

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Headline

• Police Chase Snakes Through City
• Marion, Indiana
• Chronicle-Tribune
• 2007

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Jay Leno Headlines, 23 March 06

• Tight End Returns After Colon Surgery

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Headline

• Arafat not dead,
• but in grave condition

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TV Scrolling Text

• Clerics urge Iraqi commandos not to fight with
  U.S. troops
• in Fallujah.

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Test of Reading Comprehensiona Newspaper
Headline

• IRAQI HEAD SEEKS ARMS

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Test of Reading Comprehensiona Newspaper
Headline

• DRUNK GETS
• NINE MONTHS IN VIOLIN CASE

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Test of Reading Comprehensiona Newspaper
Headline

• JUVENILE COURT TO TRY SHOOTING DEFENDANT

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Test of Reading Comprehensiona Newspaper
Headline

• MINERS REFUSE TO WORK AFTER DEATH

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Test of Reading Comprehensiona Newspaper
Headline

• Young Marines Make
• Tasty Holiday Treats

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What Do We Know About Learning?

• There are different types of knowledge.
• There are different types learning.
• Learning may be the most complex of human
  endeavors.

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Even When Summarized, the Learning Process is
Complex.

• For instance, Anderson and Krathwohls A Taxonomy
  for learning, Teaching, and Assessing, 2001.
• Categories of cognition. Knowledge Types.
• Remember. Factual.
• Understand. Conceptual.
• Apply. Procedural.
• Analyze. Metacognitive.
• Evaluate. Each of these categories has
  subcategories,
• Create. and each type has subtypes.

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What Do We Know About Language Learning?

• Consider the following combination of the
  governments language proficiency scale with
  Anderson and Krathwohls scale of cognitive
  development.
• How long does it take language learners to reach
  each level in their 1st language?
• In their 2nd language?

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Language Proficiency Levels 0 5 and the
Cognitive Process Dimension (Levels 1- 6)

• Level 5, (6. Create) new conceptualizations
  through refined use of rhetorical skills.
• Level 4, (5. Evaluate) and critique language for
  appropriateness of style, register, and nuance.
• Level 3, (4. Analyze) communications, construct
  and deconstruct arguments, produce and comprehend
  culturally- bound humor, abstract ideas, and
  hypothetical concepts.
• Level 2, (3. Apply) language skills to
  comprehend, teach, and explain factual
  relationships.
• Level 1, (2. Understand) and use skills to
  construct and understand new communications.
• Level 0, (1. Remember) words and phrases.

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Language Learning is Complexity2

• Combining the complexities of language with the
  complexities of learning makes Language Learning
  an
• Extremely Complex Task (ECT).

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Language Learning Requires Far-Transfer
Learning A By-Level Proficiency Summary with Text
Types (Green Far Transfer, Blue Near
Transfer, Red Limited Transfer)
LEVEL
FUNCTION/TASKS
CONTEXT/TOPICS
ACCURACY
All expected of an educated NS Books
Accepted as an educated NS
All subjects
5
Tailor language, counsel, motivate, persuade,
negotiate Chapters
Wide range of professional needs
Extensive, precise, and appropriate
4
Errors never interfere with communication
rarely disturb
Support opinions, hypothesize, explain, deal with
unfamiliar topics Multiple pages
Practical, abstract, special interests
3
Concrete, real-world, factual
Intelligible even if not used to dealing with
non-NS
Narrate, describe, give directions Multiple
paragraphs
2
Q A, create with the language Multiple
sentences
Intelligible with effort or practice
1
Everyday survival
0
Memorized Words and Phrases
Random
Unintelligible
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Is Language Learning really anExtremely Complex
Task?Some Factors that Contribute to Complexity

• The type of learning expected.
• The testing method applied.
• The teaching strategy used.
• The amount of time available.

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1. The type of learning expected 3 Major Types
of Learning

• Limited Transfer
• Near Transfer
• Far Transfer

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First Type of Learning

• With limited transfer learning, students
• Memorize and practice specific responses.
• Focus is on the content of a specific course,
  textbook, or curriculum.
• Learn only what is taught.

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Second Type of Learning

• With near transfer learning, students
• Go beyond rote responses to rehearsed and
  semi-rehearsed responses.
• Focus on a predetermined set of tasks or
  settings.
• Apply what they learn within a range of familiar,
  predictable settings.

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Third Type of Learning

• With learning for far transfer, students
• Develop the ability to transfer what is learned
  from one context to another.
• Acquire the knowledge and skills needed to
  respond spontaneously to new, unknown, or
  unpredictable situations.
• Learn how to continue learning and to become
  independent learners.

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2. The testing method Applied3 Types of Tests

• Achievement
• Performance
• Proficiency

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First Type of Test

• Achievement tests measure
• Practiced, memorized responses.
• What was taught.
• The content of a specific textbook or curriculum.

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Second Type of Test

• Performance tests measure
• Rehearsed and semi-rehearsed responses.
• Ability to respond in constrained, familiar, and
  predictable settings.
• Whether learning transfers to similar situations.

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Third Type of Test

• Proficiency tests measure
• Whether skills are transferable to new tasks.
• Spontaneous, unrehearsed abilities.
• General ability to accomplish tasks across a wide
  variety of real-world settings.

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Aligning Learning and Testing

• Limited Transfer ltgt Achievement
• Memorized responses using the content of a
  specific textbook or curriculum.
• Near Transfer ltgt Performance
• Rehearsed ability to communicate in specific,
  familiar settings.
• Far Transfer ltgt Proficiency
• Unrehearsed general ability to accomplish
  real-world communication tasks across a wide
  range of topics and settings.

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When teaching and testing arenot aligned,
learning suffers.

• Limited Transfer Teaching
• Proficiency Testing
• Learning Failure
• Learners wont be prepared for the tests.
• Motivation will be reduced.
• Far Transfer Teaching
• Achievement Testing
• Limited Transfer Learning
• Nothing defines objectives as well as the tests.
• Ergo Students adjust their learning to the
  tests.

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3. The teaching strategy usedTwo Contrasting
Alternatives

• Teaching for limited transfer.
• Teaching for far transfer.

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For Limited Transfer Learning, Teach the
Textbook.
Analysts list the high frequency tasks.
Textbook writers include the most
important of the frequent tasks in a textbook.
Teachers present the textbook.
Students demonstrate their mastery of
sample items drawn from the textbook.
1.
3.
4.
2.
Real-World Tasks
Textbook
Teaching
Test
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For Far Transfer Learning, Expand on the Textbook
Needs assessments define the real-world
instructional domains.
1.
2a.
Course developers sample from
the real-world domains to create a textbook.
Textbook
Real-world Instructional Domains cognitive
understanding, psychomotor skills, and affective
insights.
Teachers adapt text materials to
learners abilities, diagnose learning
difficulties, give feedback, adjust activities,
and add supplemental materials to help students
apply new knowledge and skills first in
constrained achievement and performance areas,
and then in real-world settings.
3.
Teacher
Test developers use a different sample
of the real-world domain areas to create
proficiency tests that are independent of the
textbook.
2b.
Students use deliberate practice
activities, expand, and then demonstrate their
unrehearsed extemporaneous abilities across a
broad range of real-world settings that are not
in the textbook.
4.
Students
Test
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4. The amount of time available.

• Limited time
• Emergency response situations.
• Extended time
• Force-building and long-range professional
  development.

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When Time is Limited

• Focus on the most critical knowledge and/or
  skills not just the most frequently occurring
  needs.
• Teach for achievement.
• Effective for limited needs, but not for
  far-transfer learning.
• Includes the option of planned, Just-In-Time
  training.
• Use follow-on training to build transferable
  skills.

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When More Time Is Available

• Teach for proficiency.
• Continually present challenges just beyond the
  learners abilities.
• Plan ahead for course articulation and extended
  learning sequences.
• Recognize that developing far-transfer
  capabilities in any field requires time.
• Simons law It takes about a decade of
  effortful study to master any field.
• The Expert Mind, Scientific American. August
  2006

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Is it possible to accelerate language learning?

• Five examples of attempted acceleration
• Army training language for special purposes.
• English for air traffic controllers.
• Suggestopedia research at the Defense Language
  Institute, Foreign Language Center (DLIFLC).
• Cryptologic language courses.
• The DLIFLC Proficiency Enhancement Program.

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Example 1 Language for Special Purposes Army
Trainer Magazine Volume 13, Number 3. Spring
1994. Page 47. ...the program can teach a
brain surgeon to perform brain surgery in Spanish
with a Spanish-speaking staff. To perform
routine brain surgery, we assume that you need 20
basic commands, 10 comments or observations, and
15 yes and no questions as well as a specialized
vocabulary of perhaps 30 to 40 words. Italics
added.
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• Example 2a Air Traffic Control
• In the Canary Islands, March 1977
• A Dutch pilot of a 747 reported he was at
  takeoff.
• The controller assumed he was ready for takeoff,
  but awaiting instructions.
• The pilot meant he was in the process of
  taking off.
• The pilots airplane collided with another 747.
• The ambiguous use of the preposition at
  resulted in 583 deaths.

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• Example 2b Air Traffic Control
• Cali, Colombia December 1995
• A controller had given the standard landing
  instructions to an approaching 757.
• He realized that the crews replies did not make
  sense.
• He lacked the English skills needed to rephrase
  his instructions or to ask questions of the
  planes crew.
• He repeated his memorized instructions.
• The airplane flew into a mountain.
• 160 were killed.

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Example 2c Air Traffic Control Airport
Operations Journal Vol. 23, No 5. September
October 1997 ATC terminology is highly
specialized and occurs infrequently in the
general language, however A fairly high
level of functional proficiency is needed to
master ATC terminology, because the learner must
also know about the language.
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Example 2d Air Traffic Control Airport
Operations Journal Vol. 23, No 5. September
October 1997 A fairly high level of functional
proficiency is needed, because the learner must
also know - the probability of encountering
the word - the types of words most likely
associated with that word - the
limitations imposed on the use of the word -
and the syntax associated with the word. The
mastery of specialized terminology is
insufficient.
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Example 3a Suggestopedia at DLIFLCA Study of
Innovative Training Techniquesat the Defense
Language InstituteForeign Language Center. ARI,
1986.

• Research to compare the Suggestopedia method
  with traditional DLIFLC teaching.
• Limited to the first 10 weeks (300 classroom
  hours) of a 47-week Russian basic course.
• Learners Russian language development and their
  attitudes toward learning Russian were measured
  every two weeks.

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Example 3b Suggestopedia at DLIFLCBackground

• In the early 1980s, language instruction at the
  DLIFLC was not going well.
• The focus was on training for specific tasks.
• Almost all students passed the tests, but they
  werent able to perform real-world tasks.
• Less than one fourth of DLIFLC graduates had the
  general language skills needed for their jobs.
• DLIFLC was recognized as the most efficient
  government language school, but the least
  effective.

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Example 3cSuggestopedia at DLIFLC

• The experimental classes were taught by teachers
  trained and selected by the company holding the
  Suggestopedia franchise in the U.S.
• Had music and comfortable swivel/rocking chairs.
• Used desuggestive learning for spontaneous
  acquisition of knowledge, skills, and habits.
• The control classes were taught by the only DLI
  teachers available.
• Used a very traditional mix of teaching
  techniques.

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Example 3d Suggestopedia at DLIFLC

• At the beginning of the experiment.
• The Suggestopedia students had a more positive
  attitude toward learning Russian.
• The traditional students had higher test scores.
• After 10 weeks
• The traditional students had a more positive
  attitude toward learning Russian.
• The traditional students had higher test scores.
• The Suggestopedia subjects had to receive 4 weeks
  of remedial instruction before continuing.

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Example 3e Suggestopedia at DLIFLC

• Some observations about Suggestopedia
• instruction focused on limited-transfer learning.
• Rather than learning to speak Russian, students
  learned to speak English with some Russian words.
• The innovative teaching techniques were
  repetitive, became boring, and failed to maintain
  interest.
• One can only guess why the franchise holder
• Threatened to sue me if the results were
  published.
• Sold the franchise.
• Suggestopedia is a technique, not a method.

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Example 4a. Cryptologic Language Training

• Standard language courses teach all skill
  modalities.
• Listening.
• Speaking.
• Reading.
• Writing.
• Cryptologic linguists dont have to speak.
• Dont teach speaking.
• Shorten the course by one third.

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Example 4b. Cryptologic Language Training

• During a transition period, the students were
  sent to different classes, but the courses were
  of equal length.
• Test data clearly showed that speaking students
  had higher listening abilities than listening
  students.
• Still, the separate listening courses were
  continued and shortened.
• Shortening courses does not always accelerate
  learning.

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Example 5aThe Proficiency Enhancement Plan
(PEP)

• A DLIFLC program launched in 1985 which included
  coordinated initiatives that changed
• How classes were scheduled.
• How students were assigned to classes.
• The content and the role of the curriculum.
• Teaching practices and teacher authority.
• The challenge was formidable.
• Less than 25 of graduates qualified at levels of
  L2/R2/S1 or better.
• The goal was to increase this to 80 of graduates.

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Example 5bPEP Initiatives Impact at DLIFLC

• 15 years later, external realities still
  prevented full implementation of PEP initiatives.
  
• Cat IV courses had been lengthened somewhat, but
  they were not fully aligned with the difficulty
  of the languages.
• Budget shortfalls often left teaching teams
  understaffed.
• Course development was still under funded.
• But student results had improved significantly!

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THRU 4TH QTR FY00
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Example 5dPEP Lessons Learned

• Professional teachers accelerate learning.
• Teacher staffing ratios make a difference.
• Student motivation can trump aptitude.
• Learning to speak helps to develop ones
  listening comprehension.
• Testing influences teaching and learning.
• Accountability promotes useful feedback.
• Measuring cost effectiveness is more important
  than measuring cost efficiency.

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Example 5ePEP Return on Investment

• When investment was increased by 33,
• 30 Increase in teacher staffing ratios.
• 17 for longer courses
• 1 for teacher development
• - 6 saved by eliminating two layers of
  supervision.
• - 9 saved by delaying course development
  projects.
• Proficiency results increased by 363
• In 1985, only 22 of graduates were meeting the
  2/2/1 proficiency goal.
• In 2000, 80 of graduates were meeting that goal.

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Example 5fPEP Return on Investment
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Seven Conclusions

• Without clearly defined learning outcomes, any
  instructional program can be accelerated.
• Improving learning outcomes may be more important
  than saving money or saving time.
• Most accelerated foreign language learning
  programs
• Teach only part of the language, e.g. vocabulary.
• Teach only for limited transfer.
• Do not expect an outcome of language proficiency.

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Seven Conclusions

• Language learning for proficiency requires
  far-transfer learning.
• Memorized language is only useful if others know
  and use the memorized dialog.
• Many learning shortcuts are dead ends.
• Trying to accelerate far transfer instruction
  by using limited transfer learning leads to a
  dead end of proficiency Level 0.
• Extended experience in unstructured learning
  environments can lead to fossilized interlanguage.

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Seven Conclusions

• Successful language learning programs share a
  common set of known instructional and curricular
  principles.
• The better those principles are followed, the
  more accelerated the learning in those programs.
• Programs that ignore or violate those principles
  are unsuccessful.
• A brief summary of those principles is included
  at the end of this presentation.

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Three so what research questions

• Which option produces greater acceleration of
  learning improving instruction or increasing
  learner readiness?

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Three so what research questions

• Which option produces greater acceleration of
  learning improving instruction or increasing
  learner readiness?
• Is it more difficult to accelerate far-transfer
  learning than to accelerate near- or
  limited-transfer learning?

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Three so what research questions

• Which option produces greater acceleration of
  learning improving instruction or increasing
  learner readiness?
• Is it more difficult to accelerate far-transfer
  learning than to accelerate near- or
  limited-transfer learning?
• Are accelerated learning techniques sustainable
  over the long periods of time needed to develop
  expertise in a complex area such as proficiency
  in another language?

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Three so what research questions

• Is it more difficult to accelerate far-transfer
  learning than to accelerate near- or
  limited-transfer learning?
• Which option produces greater acceleration of
  learning improving instruction or increasing
  learner readiness?
• Are accelerated learning techniques sustainable
  over the long periods of time needed to develop
  expertise in a complex area such as proficiency
  in another language?

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Questions?Items for later discussion?
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Additional Information OnSecond
LanguageInstructional Principles
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Second Language Learning

• Language learning may be the most complex and
  least understood of human activities.
• However, it is known that to be successful,
  language learning programs must satisfy a set of
  known curricular and instructional principles.

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Second Language Learning

• The curricular principles for successful language
  learning relate to the scope, sequence, and
  length of courses in the program.
• The instructional principles for effective
  language learning relate to the effective
  combination of subject matter considerations,
  learner variables, pedagogical principles, and
  deliberate practice with formative feedback to
  the learner.

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Curricular Principles

• Presentation of the language should be in
  communicative, social settings.
• The curriculum should be built on a corpus of
  language that continually expands in task,
  discourse, and cultural complexity.
• A course design that simultaneously increases the
  number of topical domains introduced while
  re-entering familiar topics with greater depth
  and precision.

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Curricular Principles(Continued)

• An instructional sequence that extends over a
  sufficient period of time for the learner to
  acquire the cognitive understanding, psychomotor
  skills, and cultural awareness needed to
  accurately communicate facts, concepts, and
  feelings with members of another society.

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Instructional Principles

• Interactive communication practice that requires
  the learner to comprehend and produce the target
  language.
• Assistance with input comprehension.
• Timely, formative feedback to the learners
  regarding the quality of their language
  comprehension and production .

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Instructional Principles(Continued)

• Individualized feedback to the learner that
  recognizes and applies differential performance
  and accuracy expectations depending on each
  language components degree of difficulty and
  each learners aptitude, motivation, and prior
  experience.

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Instructional Principles(Continued)

• Presentation of new language content and concepts
  at a pace that is appropriate for the learner and
  for the difficulty of the material to be mastered.

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Instructional Principles(Continued)

• Modes of instruction that recognize individuals
  learning preferences and that expand their
  learning styles repertoire as needed to acquire a
  full range of language skills.
• Learning activities that use expansion,
  enhancement, and enrichment of the initial target
  language input to build from controlled
  communication exchanges to unpredictable,
  real-world language use.

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Conclusions

• Any instructional program which satisfies these
  curricular and instructional principles can be
  successful.
• The better these components of a successful
  program function, the more effective that program
  will be.
• Any instructional program which fails to satisfy
  these curricular and instructional principles
  will be unsuccessful.

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The Endof a brief introduction toLanguage
Learning,an Extremely Complex Task.