History of Counseling Psychology

1
History of Counseling Psychology

• Big Bang - 1940

2
1500S

• Bernardino Alvarez establishes in Mexico the
  Hospital de San Hipolito the first in the
  Americas dedicated to serving patients with
  psychological problems.
• Marco Marulik publishes The Psychology of Human
  Thought volume 1

3
1600s

• Francis Bacon publishes The Proficiency and
  Advancement of Learning.
• E. Neuhaus a student of Cassman publishes a book
  that summarizes the reason for studying
  psychology.
• John Locke develops his theory of human nature
  based on precursor to modern empirical principles.

4
1700s

• Christian von Wolff publishes seminal works on
  empirical and rational psychology.
• Immanuel Kant publishes The Critic of the Pure
  Reason and establishes the precedent for a
  separation between the empirical and the
  transcendental.

5
1800-1850

• Herbert Spencer publishes two volumes on the
  Principles of Psychology.
• Charles Darwin publishes The Origin of the
  Species The Descent of Man The Expression of
  Emotions in the Man and in the Animals A
  Biographical Sketch of an Infant.
• Willhelm Wundt establishes the first
  psychological laboratory at Leipzig Germany.

6
1851-1889

• William James teaches the course The
  relationships among the Physiology and the
  Psychology.
• Max Friedrich becomes the firs recipient of a
  doctoral degree in psychology.
• Francis Galton begins extensive use of
  questionnaires
• First psychology laboratory in American
  established at Johns Hopkins University
• William James publishes What is Emotion

7

• James McKeen Cattell becomes Americas first
  professor of psychology at the University of
  Pennsylvania.
• William James publishes Principles of Psychology
• American Psychological Association founded by G.
  Stanley Hall
• Hugo Munsterberg comes to Harvard and is
  eventually elected president of APA

8
1900 -1940

• John Watson founded behaviorism while at Johns
  Hopkins
• Freud begins his theory with The Interpretation
  of Dreams
• William Stern publishes On the Psychology of the
  Individual Differences
• Spearman publishes his first book on general
  intelligence

9
1900-1940

• Jung splits with Freud
• Division of Applied Psychology if established at
  Carnegie U.
• Army Intelligence tests find widespread use.
• Adler publishes On the Sense of Life and begins
  establishing Child Guidance Centers.

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1940-1950The Late Years of the First Historical
Period

• The 1940s began to feel the influences of
  psychoanalytic concepts of repression and anxiety
  and their significances for understanding
  behavior.
• Division 17 went through four name changes during
  this period Division of Personnel Psychologists
  Division of Personnel and Guidance Psychologists
  Division of Counseling and Guidance
  Psychologists Division of Counseling and
  Guidance

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1940-1941

• New APA created blending scientists and
  practitioners for psychotherapy and vocational
  issues with GIs
• Super writes Vocational interest patterns A
  study in the psychology of avocations
• Patterson et al. develop the Minnesota
  occupational rating scales and counseling profile

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1942

• MMPI published by Hathaway and McKinley
• Carl Rogers writes Counseling and
  Psychotherapy which marks the beginning of
  humanistic psychology and stimulated the
  development of counseling from non-medical and
  non-psychoanalytic perspectives

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1943

• Merger between APA and the American Association
  for Applied Psychology initiating the divisions
  in APA
• APA Division 17 formed and named the Division of
  Counseling and Guidance
• Hull writes Principles of Behavior
• Strong writes Vocational Interests of Men and
  Women

14
1944

• Brow writes Growth and Present Status of
  Occupational Testing
• First US state law for certification or licensure
  of psychologists was signed in Connecticut
• Fenichel publishes The Psychoanalytic Theory of
  Neuroses

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1946(The Watershed Year)

• WWII made it necessary for the VA to establish a
  counseling psychologist position focusing on GI
  psychotherapy and vocational issues
• APA convention in Philadelphia introduced Carl
  Rogers as president-elect of APA. Division of
  Counseling and Guidance is official name given to
  Division 17
• Bordin writes Diagnosis in counseling and
  psychotherapy
• Rogers writes Significant aspects of
  client-centered therapy
• First number of American Psychologist is
  published

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1947-1948

• Fromm writes Man for Himself
• Skinner publishes Walden Two
• Buber writes Between Man and Man
• Tolman writes Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men
• Inaugural newsletter of Division 17
  Counseling
  News and Views
• Counselor Training Committee and the Committee
  on Research were started. Close association
  with the National Vocational Guidance
  Association

17
1949

• Boulder conference produced the
  scientist-practitioner model of clinical
  education. Began to see the real divide between
  clinical and counseling psychology
• Discrepancies over the name Counseling and
  Guidance began and would continue until the name
  change in 1951
• Hebb publishes The Organization of Behavior
• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children first
  published

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• Salter writes Conditioned Reflex Therapy
• Brill writes Basic Principles of Psychoanalysis
• Two events led to distinguishing the role of
  psychological counseling from that of clinical
  psychology and psychiatry Ann Arbor Conference
  and presidential message from Darley about
  defining the field in context of other helping
  professions

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1950

• Professionalization of psychology-less interest
  in research more interest in practice
• Division 17 commits to being a psychological
  field with a need for PhD over MA
• Founding of the Annual Review of Psychology noted
  in the newsletter providing for relevant
  literature to be carefully reviewed
• Dreikurs writes Fundamentals of Adlerian
  Psychology

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• Dollard and Miller write Personality and
  Psychotherapy
• May writes The Meaning of Anxiety
• Noted that counseling psychology influenced by
  two theoretical constellations 1)personality
  counseling psychotherapy2)vocational
  occupational career development

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History of Counseling Psychology (1951-1956)
In the fifties the career and interpersonal
needs and problems of the many veterans and their
families and the unprecedented growth in higher
education enrollments created a ferment of
research and experimentation especially in the
areas of career development and of counseling
orientations (Schwebel 1984).
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1951

• Tentative draft of the code of ethics for
  psychologists formulated (APA).
• Division 17 is second largest division within
  APA.
• Donald Supers APA presidential statement
  clarified the functions of Division 17.
• The Northwestern Conference was the vehicle for
  addressing the problems of standards for
  practicum training and training psychologists at
  the doctoral level.
• American Personnel and Guidance Association
  founded (now American Counseling association).
• Rogers Client-Centered Therapy Its Current
  Practice Implications and Theories.

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1952

• Donald super expands on the formal statements of
  the Northwestern Conference It is imperative
  that counseling psychology remain firmly
  established within the orbit of basic
  psychological science and related disciplines.
  The related disciplines are the other behavior
  sciences.
• APA Division 17 Committee on Training stated that
  the counseling psychology should acquire a core
  of basic concepts tools and techniques that
  should be common to all psychologists
• Along with research training six other areas
  were singled out by the committee for counseling
  psychologist to have training in.

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1953

• The name of APA Division 17 is changed to the
  division of Counseling Psychology.
• The birth of the Journal of Counseling Psychology
  announced.
• The Guidance and Pupil Personnel Services section
  of the U.S. Office of education was
  re-established.
• The Secretary-treasurer of the American board of
  Examiners in Professional Psychology indicated
  that awarded diplomas would designate Counseling
  psychology instead of Counseling and Guidance.
• APA Education and Training Board approves the
  first evaluation of doctoral programs in
  counseling psychology. Seventeen programs are
  selected.

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1954 - Journal of Counseling Psychology

• First edition February 1954
• Founders Milton Haun Harold G. Seashore Donald
  E. Super C. Gilbert Wrenn (Editor)
• Financed by private shareholders
• Original content areas
• Counseling and Personality Theory
• Counseling Process
• Research Theory and Method
• Vocational and Rehabilitation Counseling
• Measurement in Counseling
• Counselor and Professional Growth

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1954 - Hahns Division 17 Address

• Purpose To differentiate Counseling Psychology
  from other fields
• Counseling psychologist functions
• Client vs. patient focus
• Not under the supervision of other disciplines
• Practice based on normative approaches
• Change attitudes vs. restructuring personality
• Anxiety states at interfering vs. disabling
  levels
• Most skilled in assessment of human traits to aid
  clients in educational-vocational and social
  living
• Process not complete until client has future plan
  of action
• Stress positive strengths vs. remedying
  pathologies

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1959 - APA Education Training Board

• Purpose to determine whether counseling should
  continue to be recognized as independent
  specialty
• Appraisals not in print for 20 years
• Report
• Declining numbers entering field
• Decline in quality grad students
• No APA-approved internships
• Scientific status unsatisfactory lowest of all
  psychology specialties
• Need for possible fusion of clinical and
  counseling psychology

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Division 17 Response

• Based on Division growth health of counseling
  same as rest of
• New members have range of interests outside
  counseling
• Most employed in educational institutions very
  few in private practice
• In medium sized field same as social and
  educational psychology
• Distinct mission focus on role problems in
  education vocation and marriage vs.
  intrapersonal conflicts

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Division 17 Response

• Rationale for continued existence
• History of responsible accomplishment
• Healthy growth rate during preceding decade
• Lively journal
• Specialized training programs
• Possibility of qualifying for ABEPP diploma
• Opportunities for employment specific to training
  and certification
• Goals purposes and techniques distinctly
  different from field of clinical psychology

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1960 - E TB Status Report

• 3 Recommendations
• Merger with clinical psychology new field would
  focus training on both normal and disturbed
  populations
• Train as counselors first psychologists second
• Development of counseling at M.A. level
• Report was never published

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Influence of Societal Context

• Sputnik 1957 Spurs focus on identifying future
  tech and scientific leaders
• Important legislation
• Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1954
• National Defense Education Act of 1958
• Created demand for more positions than could be
  filled by existing counseling psychologists
• Cooperative Research Program (OE)
• Sets up educational institutes for training
  testing and counseling personnel
• Provides funds for research in counseling

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Call for Research

• New NDEA funding opportunities
• As of 1958 50 to 66 of research authored by
  non-counseling psych.s
• 1958 Miami Conference
• Research a defining characteristic of all
  psychologists
• Broaden methodology courses using problems from
  clinics schools etc.
• Begin research participation early in training
• Supervision of clinical theses by experienced
  faculty members
• Recognize creative useful but not necessarily
  original and inquiring types of research

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Scientific Status of CP Committee

• By 1959 though eligible still no funding from
  NIMH for CP training programs
• 1961 Annual Review of Psych. plans to
  discontinue reviews of CP
• SSCPC investigated ways to improve quality and
  amount of CP research
• identification of funding sources
• method for communicating this info to Division 17
  members
• assisting them in utilizing sources
• promoting greater interaction of group and
  research

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Theoretical Developments

• Major program of research in client-centered
  therapy
• Rational Emotive Therapy developed by Albert
  Ellis (1957)
• Transactional Analysis founded by Eric Berne
  (1958)
• Vocational/Occupational psychology contributions
  E.K. Strong J.L Holland Donald E. Super and
  Anne Roe

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Alternative Directions For the Profession

• The Fifth Historical Period
• (1968-1976)

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The Most Comprehensive Definition of the
Profession

• Counseling Psychologist provides individual and
  group guidance and counseling services in
  schools colleges and universities hospitals
  clinics rehabilitation centers and industry to
  assist individuals in achieving more effective
  personal social educational and vocational
  development and achievement. Collects data about
  the individual through use of interview case
  history and observational techniques. Selects
  administers scores and interprets psychological
  tests designed to assess individuals
  intelligence aptitudes abilities and
  interests applying knowledge of statistical
  analysis.Evaluates data to identify cause of
  problem and to determine advisability of
  counseling or referral to other specialists or
  institutions. Conducts counseling or therapeutic
  interviews to assist individual to gain insight
  into personal problems define goals and plan
  action reflecting his interests abilities and
  needs. Provides occupational educational and
  other information to enable individual to
  formulate realistic educational and vocational
  plans. Follows up results of counseling to
  determine reliability and validity of treatment
  used. May engage in research to develop and
  improve diagnostic and counseling techniques (Vol
  I of the Dict. Of Occupations 1965).

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3 New Roles Identified

• Remedial or Rehabilitative This is helping
  people who are presently experiencing difficulty.
• Preventive This is anticipating circumventing
  or forestalling difficulties which may arise in
  the future.
• Educative and Developmental This is to help
  plan obtain and derive maximum benefit from
  experiences which will enable them to discover
  and fulfill their potential.

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Settings and Positions in Which Counseling
Psychologists Work

• Educational Settings
• Health-related settings
• Industry and Government
• Community Counseling
• Agencies
• Private Practice
• Other

• Primarily teaching
• Primarily Service Administration
• Primarily Service
• Miscellaneous

In the 1960s all doctoral personnel were
obviously providing the bulk of service delivery
in educational settings.
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Point of view is one of hope and optimism

• Individuals can change can lead satisfying
  lives can be self-directing and can find ways
  of using their resources even though these may
  have been impaired by incapacitating attitudes
  and feelings slow maturation cultural
  deprivation lack of opportunity illness
  injury or old age.

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1968

• Jordaan et al. defined the role and the steps to
  become a Counseling psychologist
• Waranth address the continuing problems of
  defining Counseling Psychology and of the
  communication gap between academicians and
  service personnel
• Wrenn clarified how the Evaluation Committee of
  the APA Education and Training Board functioned
• Erikson Identity youth and crisis

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The Counseling Psychologist Founded in 1969
John Whitely - Editor

• It appeared as a vehicle for critical analysis
  reformulation and commentary on professional
  issues.
• Each issue has a different topic of concern.
• The usual format involves a major treatise on a
  problem followed by critical analysis by
  prominent
• scholars or practitioners.
• The appearance of new topics of importance to
  counseling psychologists

• The opportunity to increase understanding of new
  client populations
• The necessity and desirability of rethinking
  reformulating and extending the conceptual bases
  of the initial historical roots of the profession
• The extension of substantive new approaches to
  delivery services

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The Societal Context

• Sources of the changes in social attitudes
• The effects of the Vietnam war and the responses
  to it by the institutions in society especially
  education
• The changes in attitudes toward authority and
  loss of trust in institutions in response to
  Watergate era
• The continuing quest for the ideal self in
  society which characterized the 1970s
• The search for wellness and pre-occupation with
  self-help abetted by the active efforts of some
  counseling psychologists to give the profession
  to the people through prevention and
  psychological education

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1969

• Albert Bandura Social Learning Model
• Adler The science of living

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1970

• Anti War Movement
• Atkinson Hosford and Zimmer founded UCSBs CP
  program rise of cognitive psychology
• Atkinson begins research on multicultural issues
  in counseling
• Vail Conference Diversity issues addressed
  Counselor Education PsyD degree established
• Group for the Study of Interpersonal
  Development founded at Harvard by Dr. Selman

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1970 cont.

• Watergate
• Sues Psychotherapeutic Services for Ethnic
  Minority Groups Some Optimism Some Pessimism
• Winborn publishes Procedures for protecting
  Consumers of Counseling
• Kuhns Structure of Scientific Revolution
• The Human Potential Movement begins

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Conceptualized Youth as a preadolescent stage

• Who have completed the tasks the adolescence as
  Erikson defined them (emancipation from the
  family comfort with sexuality attainment of a
  sense of identity and capacity for intimacy)
• Who assess and reassess their relationship to
  society while postponing acceptance of adult
  responsibility
• Who enter a period of experimentation with adult
  roles.

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1974

• The Journal of Black Psychology was first
  published by the Association of Black
  Psychologists
• Stacie Ottley arrived May 25

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To Bring Closure to this Period

• Began with the most comprehensive statement yet
• A second definition in 1976 differed in
  direction from the 1968 version
• Emphasis of the 3-part role was reaffirmed
• Social Attitudes changed dramatically
• Theoretical and research literature underwent a
  steady increase

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RETHINKING PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY

• The Sixth Historical Period

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1977 - 1983
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THREE ELEMENTS

• General consensus on professional identity
• Legacy of theoretical and empirical developments
• Supportive attitude of society toward
  preventative and developmental services

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FOUR INITIATIVES

• Further refinement of professional identity
• Project the role of the profession into the 21st
  century and be proactive
• Determine what makes a counseling psychologist
  a counseling psychologist
• The Next Decade project of Division 17

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FURTHER REFINEMENT
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A Counseling Psychologist would be

• 1977 Division 17 offered the defining
  characteristics of counseling psychologists
• Are we as good as they Are we worthy of being
  called psychologists
• 10 Criteria

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To Infinity and BeyondThe Next Decade Project

• Provide long-range guide
• Provide statements to mediate state boards and
  national associations
• Provide documents to use with prospective
  students on future
• Provide process for CPs to consider roles
  aspirations and opportunities

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FOUR REVIEWS

• Super and Hall (1978) on Career Development
• Krumboltz Becker-Haven and Burnett (1979) on
  Counseling Psychology
• Holland Magoon and Spokane (1981) on Career
  interventions
• Borgen (1984) on Counseling Psychology

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Super and Hall

• Emphasized exploration and planning aspects of
  career development
• This review covered literature from 1932-78

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So What Makes You You
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And The Winners Are...Holland Magoon and
Spokane (1981)

• Krumboltzs Social Learning Model
• Hollands psychology of careers and career
  intervention
• Developmental formulations appealing but not
  appreciative of RIGOR

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Trends and Emerging Trends
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Controversy Conflict and Change

• Developing a profession
• Scientist-Practitioner Model
• Search for integration

• Liberalizing bases for inference
• Philosophical underpinnings
• Models of causations

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• 1977- A. Bandura proposes Self-Efficacy Theory
• 1978- Pat Wolleat produces Multiplying Options
  and Subtracting Bias
• 1978- Krumboltz introduces Career Beliefs
  Inventory
• 1980- R. Reagan goes to War on Drugs
• Selman develops Theory of Social Perspective
  Taking
• Rise of Psychopharmacology
• HMO influence
• Borow writes The Way We Were Reflections on the
  History of Vocational Guidance

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MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL
RESEARCH LITERATURE 1980 - 2000

• Changes in methodological diversity
• Counseling interventions process and outcomes
• Career development and counseling
• Multicultural counseling
• Issues of gender and sexual preferenceSupervision
  

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Methodological Diversity and Sophistication

• 1980s Call for utilization of more
  sophisticated statistical analysis including a
  shift from ANOVA to multiple regression
• 1987 Fassinger introduces one of the most
  significant statistical developments causal
  modeling
• 1992 P. P. Heppner Kivlighan and Wampold
  
• published the first research design book
  specific to counseling
• 1997 Hill Thompson and Williams publish an
  article which introduces a new methodology-consens
  ual qualitative research

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Counseling Interventions Process and Outcomes

• 1980s Investigations focus on cognitive
  processes and covert behaviors of both clients
  and counselors research is characterized by
  increased methodological rigor and greater
  clarity in operationalizing constructs and
  examining systematic linkage of process events to
  counseling outcomes
• 1984 Borgen identifies three mainstream
  theoretical perspectives that have been the most
  researched from 1978-1982 cognitive-behavioral
  social psychological models of influence and
  analytic models

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Issues of Gender and Sexual Orientation

• 1960s-1970s Womens roles change rapidly and
  questions arise about bias in psychological
  research
• 1978 Counseling Psychology publishes its first
  special issue on counseling men
• 1980-1990 Research on womens issues grows
  research on counseling issues pertaining to gay
  lesbian and bisexual concerns is just beginning
  two major journals in counseling psychology
  published special issues devoted to gay lesbian
  and bisexual concerns
• 1992 Literature on the psychology of women
  develops as does feminist theory

68
Issues in Multicultural Counseling

• Francis Cecil Sumner - Father of African American
  Psychologists. 1st African American to receive a
  PhD in Psychology 1920
• Joseph White Ph.D. Father of Black Psychology
  

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1968 APA Convention in San Francisco CA

• Ø 200 psychologists created the Association of
  Black Psychologists as they voiced the following
  concerns at the APA Conference in 1968
• 1.) APA must racially integrate its own
  workforce
• 2.) APA should facilitate the entrance and
  advanced training of African Americans
• 3.) APA should monitor their journals to
  eliminate unsound unscientific racist themes
• 4.) APA should establish a program specifically
  for minority psychological concerns

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1982 to Present

• 1973-1998 reflects a significant concern for the
  utilization of culturally diverse samples. Only
  11 of publications reported ethnicity in 1973
  whereas 93 reported ethnicity in 1998
• Authors suggest that the trend in multicultural
  research will continue to grow as our profession
  remains dedicated to the growth and positive
  behavioral and emotional outcomes for an
  increasingly diverse society

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1982 Multicultural Professional Divisions in ACA
APA APS

• 1971
• American Counseling Association Association for
  Multicultural Counseling and Development
• 1985
• American Psychological Association Division 45
  Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic
  Minority Issues
•  
• 1994
• American Psychological Society Committee on
  Socially and Economically Underrepresented
  Populations

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Multicultural Professional Conferences

• 1983 Columbia University Winter Roundtable on
  Cross-Cultural Psychology and Education
• 1999 First APA Multicultural Conference and
  Summit in Newport Beach CA
•  
• 2001 Second APA Multicultural Conference and
  Summit in Santa Barbara CA
•  
• 2003 Third APA Multicultural Conference and
  Summit will take place in Hollywood CA

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Career Development and Vocational Behavior
1980-2000

• Theories that have provided a foundation for
  empirical work and practice are Bordin
  Dawis/Lofquist Holland Krumboltz and Super
•        
• Four major specialty journals are
•        Journal of Vocational Behavior
•        Career Development Quarterly
•        Journal of Career Development
• Journal of Career Assessment (new in 1993)

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• Continues to be the most empirically mature area
  of research and practice within the field of
  counseling psychology.
• John Hollandprovides research and practical
  applications in his book Making Vocational
  Choices (revised in 1997).
• Savickas outlined two important areas that the
  field continues to grapple with
• 1. Convergence of existing theories of career
  choice development.
• 2. Use of post-modern thought to move beyond
  logical positivism as the philosophy of science
  for theory and research about vocational
  behavior.

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• Methodological advancements have been a hallmark
  of the 1980s and 1990s.
• Meta-analytic procedures structural equation
  modeling and hierarchical linear modeling have
  allowed for a more thorough examination of the
  complex relationships among career constructs.
• Oliver and Spokne conducted a meta-analysis
  across 58 vocational studies to determine the
  relationship between intervention characteristics
  and outcome.
• Thus methodological diversity and sophistication
  have expanded during this time period to allow
  for greater exploration of the complex factors
  involved in career development

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The role of career development in the lives of
previously marginalized individuals has been an
important focus of the 1980s and 1990s. Two
major theoretical contributions during this time
were 1. Gottfredsons theory of impact of
occupational gender-typing on the circumscription
and compromise of career choices (1981). 2.
Hackett and Betzs application of Banduras
self-efficacy theory to women career
development.
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Supervision 1980s

• Bartlett Goodyear and Bradley edited a special
  journal issue on counseling supervision which
  discussed theoretical models and summarized the
  research literature.
• Russell Crimmings and Lent analyzed the
  existing supervision literature calling for more
  specificity of theories moving beyond beginning
  counselor trainees and giving more attention to
  external validity issues.
• Supervision-specific models were proposed
  (Loganbill Hardy Delworth)
• Developmental approach The basic assumption
  was that effective supervision must incorporate
  the level of counselor development and thus
  differ across trainees level of development
  (Stolenberg Delworth).

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Supervision 1990s

• Several major books on supervision appeared
  (Bernard Goodyear 1992 1998 Holloway 1995
  Stoltenberg McNeil Delworth 1997 Watkins
  1997).
• The Watkins book is an excellent resource
  devoted to theoretical approaches to supervision
  training models research and professional
  issues.

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Throughout the 1980s 1990s Division 17
underwent tremendous change.

• As proposed by then president George Gazda in
  1986 the national conference for Counseling
  Psychology called Planning the Future was
  organized held. A major theme throughout the
  conference was the importance of counseling
  psychologys traditional awareness of viewing
  people and their behavior within a socio-cultural
  context influenced by variables of culture
  ethnicity gender sexual orientation age and
  socio-historical perspective.

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• The recommendations from this conference set in
  motion a wide range of activities related to
  education and training science practice and
  professional issues that would affect the members
  and leadership of the Division for many years.
• In 1987 the Student Affiliate Group (SAG) was
  begun at the University of Iowa. At present SAG
  has over 300 members publishes a newsletter
  regularly presents a symposium at the Annual APA
  conference.

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• 1980-1985 Push for more APA accredited counseling
  psychology training programs. Between 1980-1985
  the number of accredited counseling psych.
  training programs increased from 22 to 44 and by
  1995 there were 68 accredited programs. From
  1980-95 an increase of over 180.
• In 1987 President Lawrence Brammer moved to
  recognize the outstanding accomplishments of more
  individual members. He increased the professional
  awards from one to five including the Leona Tyler
  Award and other awards that recognized young
  professionals research achievements outstanding
  practice and outstanding dissertations.

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MCOs

• Because of rising medical costs in the 1990s
  government and employers increasingly contracted
  psychological services out to managed care
  organizations (MCOs) which served as an entity
  to enhance accountability of health care and
  reduce costs. As a result of this change the
  Division was forced to focus more on independent
  practitioners and attend to matters outside the
  traditional focus of either academic psychology
  or practice within higher education settings.

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CCPTP

• During the 1980s the Counsel of Counseling
  Psychology Training Programs (CCPTP) organized
  and developed a Training Manual for Program
  Directors focused on helping training programs
  interpret annual survey data and obtain
  accreditation of counseling psychology programs.
  CCPTP leadership also focused on improving
  internship standards and developing training
  experiences which promised to enhance
  competitiveness of counseling psychology intern
  applicants.

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ACCTA

• At the Georgia Conference of 1988 the issue of
  conceptualization of doctoral training models for
  counseling psychologists was addressed. At this
  conference pre-doctoral internship became more
  established as a necessary component of the
  doctoral degree in professional psychology. The
  Association of Counseling Center Training
  Agencies (ACCTA) is a central figure in
  addressing this and other training needs.

85

• From 1980 to 1999 ACCTA has grown in numbers
  from 20 members to over 120. Its central focus
  remains bringing training directors together to
  talk about common education and training issues
  in university counseling centers. ACCTA has
  become a strong force within organized
  psychology particularly with regard to pre and
  post doctoral internship training.

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ACA

• The last twenty years have also witnessed greater
  collaboration between the American Counseling
  Association (ACA) and Division 17 of the APA. The
  ACA has become very active in accreditation and
  credentialing of professional counseling
  psychologists at both the masters and doctoral
  levels.