Guidelines for Report Writing

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Guidelines for Report Writing
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Title

• Title a concise sentence summarising
• what you did and found
• It should be catchy (drawing ones attention)
  but also fleshy convey the works
  substance
• ? The title should help anyone browsing through
  a list of articles kicked up by a
  search engine (e.g. Google
  Scholar, Web of Knowledge or Science Direct)
  decide if this is really relevant to what they
  are interested in

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Title Example

• Example
• Is the title Body image informative
  fleshy?
• Based on the report content, it would better
  be entitled
• Perception of own body size is related to
  the choice of partners size

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Abstract

• Abstract about 200 words summarising what
  you did, what you found and what it means. It
  should include
• The problem being investigated
• Research hypothesis (not word for word but
  summarised what was predicted)
• Research method materials, procedure,
  participants (who how many sampling technique),
  design (IVs, DVs)
• Results main findings statistical test used,
  whether the statistics significant or not any
  interesting trends
• Conclusion meaning and implications of the
  findings

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Abstract

• Example Grossman, J.B. et al. (2000). Verbal
  bias in recog-nition of facial emotions in
  children with Asperger syndrome. Journal of Child
  Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 369-379.
• Thirteen children and adolescents with diagnoses
  of Asperger syndrome (AS) were matched with 13
  nonautistic control children on chronological age
  and verbal IQ. They were tested on their ability
  to recognize simple facial emotions, as well as
  facial emotions paired with matching,
  mismatching, or irrelevant verbal labels. There
  were no differences between the groups at
  recognizing simple emotions but the Asperger
  group performed significantly worse than the
  control group at recognizing emotions when faces
  were paired with mismatching words (but not with
  matching or irrelevant words). The results
  suggest that there are qualitative differences
  from nonclinical populations in how children with
  AS process facial expressions. When presented
  with a more demanding affective processing task,
  individuals with AS showed a bias towards
  visual-verbal over visual-affective information
  (i.e., words over faces). Thus, children with AS
  may be utilizing compensatory strategies, such as
  verbal mediation, to process facial expressions
  of emotion.

The problem being investigated
Participants and sampling
Design
Results their significance. What that means in
terms of the study
Implications of the findings
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Introduction

• General introduction to the area (broad)
• ? define relevant terms
• Literature review
• ? review more specifically relevant research /
  theory
• that has been conducted in relation to
  the problem
• under investigation
• ? discuss and evaluate evidence
• Relation of the current study to previous
  research
  ? provide a clear rationale for conducting your
  study
• Statement of the aims and purpose of the current
  study
• ? explicitly formulate your hypothesis which
  should summarise
• your prediction

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Introduction

• Example
• The colourful skill of inscribing the human body
  with tattoos has existed throughout the world for
  many centuries (Caplan, 2000). The fascinating
  process of permanently scarring the human body
  with the encapsulation of ink has evoked a great
  deal of research some see it as purely an art
  form (Vail, 1999), while others consider it as an
  extravagant form of self-mutilation (Newman,
  1982). Etc.
• Coe, Harmon, Verner and Tonn (1993) discovered
  that tattoos are linked with group identity, yet
  are also intrinsically linked with self identity.
  This paradox has led to research into whether
  tattoos are an expression of self identity or
  group identity. Irwin (2003) asserted that
  obtaining a tattoo effectively enables initiation
  into a new subculture of the tattooed. Sanders
  (1988) ascertained that the obtaining of tattoos
  alters both the physical appearance and the
  social perception of the individual thus
  affecting social interactions. Etc.
• Psychologists have found that there is a link
  between tattoos and low self esteem. Carroll and
  Anderson (2002) concluded that tattoos are
  directly related to low self esteem amongst
  females, and Turner (1999) discovered that
  individuals with low self esteem often obtain
  tattoos in the belief they will make their body
  more attractive.
• This study builds on previous research by
  investigating the association between obtaining
  tattoos and self esteem, with the aim of testing
  the hypothesis that participants who obtain
  tattoos are more likely to have lower self esteem
  than those who do not obtain tattoos.

Introducing the area and defining relevant terms,
i.e. what tattoos are
Research conducted into the area of the
investigation
Research connecting directly to the study
The hypothesis or prediction
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Method (4 sub-headings)

• Participants
• how many, mean age, age range, gender
  sampling technique target population anything
  relevant to your sample (e.g. clinical
  populations)
• Materials
• describe apparatus, stimuli or other
  materials used (e.g. questionnaires) and how
  they were constructed include references if
  appropriate.
• Indicate details of scoring, scales and min
  and max scores. Include
  information on reliability and validity if
  possible
• Design
• describe research method used what
  variables were manipulated (IV) and
  what variables were measured or observed (DV).
  Indicate whether the study was
  between- or within-participants details of any
  controls used
• Procedure
• provide details of how you ran your study,
  in what order, in which environment and how
  ethical considerations were dealt with.
  Include the purpose of controls
  outlined in design

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Method Participants
Sampling method and number of participants

• Example
• Opportunity sampling was used to recruit 65
  participants. No participants under 18 years of
  age were invoked, nor those with disclosed mental
  health issues. Participants ranged in age from
  18 to 61 years (mean32), were of both genders
  (31 males) and from a range of socioeconomic
  backgrounds.

Age range, mean and gender split
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Method Materials
Make sure you refer the reader to a numbered
appendix

• Example
• The Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965)
  was used to identify the self esteem rating of
  each participant. This is a validated scale with
  good internal reliability (McCarthy and Hoge,
  1982). An example can be seen in Appendix 1. An
  information sheet was also produced which
  detailed the study, and provided contact details
  for the researcher (see Appendix 2 for an
  example). The information sheet also indicated
  that all data was confidential and anonymous, and
  that data could be withdrawn at any time. An
  informed consent form was also used in the study,
  and was retained by the researcher (see Appendix
  3 for an example).

Note reference for the scale, and also for the
reliability. Both references need to go in the
Reference section
Note ethical points in the Materials
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Method Design
Design used, i.e. whether the test of difference
or association. If difference, is it between- or
within-participants?

• Example
• A between-participants design, test of difference
  was carried out. The number of tattoos was used
  as the IV (levels 0 tattoos, 1 tattoos) and
  self-esteem was the DV. Self esteem was measured
  using the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale (Rosenberg,
  1965). In order to control for distraction, each
  participant was tested in a quiet place. As self
  esteem may change immediately after getting a
  tattoo, no participants with recent tattoos were
  included in the study.

Variables IV and DV and levels of the IV
Control for potential confounding factors
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Method Procedure

• Example
• Potential participants were approached and asked
  if they would be willing to take part in a
  psychology study about tattoos. They were also
  asked if they had a tattoo, and if so for how
  long. If participants fitted the participant
  profile and agreed to take part in the study,
  they were given the Information sheet (Appendix
  2) and after reading this the Informed Consent
  form (Appendix 3) which they were asked to read
  and sign. They were then asked to fill in the
  Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale. This was carried
  out in a quiet place the researcher remained
  with the participants at all times. Participants
  were then asked about their tattoos, and the
  researcher made notes recording the number of
  tattoos and the time when they had been obtained.
  Participants were then thanked and debriefed any
  questions they had about the study were answered.
  They were also reminded that the Information
  sheet contained the researchers contact details
  should they have later queries or wish to
  withdraw their data from the study.

Note the Procedure is from the participants
perspective, not the researchers. For
example, you dont need to put that four
researchers each tested ten people
Note ethical points in the Procedure
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Results

• Descriptive statistics
• A table of measures of central tendency (e.g.
  means, SD, medians, confidence intervals) and/ or
  a Figure (e.g. error bar) for illustration
• To avoid redundancy, it is advisable to include
  either a table or a graph
  representing the same data
• Titles for tables go above tables
• Figure legends go below the graphs
• Include a sentence summarising what the
  statistics / graph show
• Inferential statistics
• Specify what test was used and why (e.g.
  Pearsons correlation related t-test)
• Report statistical outcome (e.g. r, ?2, t etc.
  df p)
• and summarise what the results show
• State whether the null hypothesis was accepted or
  rejected

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Results Descriptive

• Example
• The participants self esteem score was
  compared between persons with
• no tattoos and those with one or more
  tattoos. Table 1 shows the means
• and standard deviations (SDs) for each of the
  two studied groups.
• Table 1. Self esteem scores for the
  no-tattoo and tattoo groups.

Note table heading. Table should not be copied
from SPSS
Remember to comment on what the table shows in
relation to your study
To save space, one indicates the SD like this (or
in brackets)
Table 1 indicates that there is a difference
note not a significant difference, you can only
tell this with a p-value between the no-tattoo
group and the group with one or more tattoo(s).
The mean value is apparently higher for the
former group, but the variability for the latter
indicating a wider spread of scores.
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Results Inferential
Test used

• Example
• An unrelated t-test revealed a significant
  difference between the scores for participants
  with no tattoos and those with one or more
  tattoos, t (63) 5.89, p that the participants with no tattoos have a
  significantly higher self esteem. The hypothesis
  that persons with tattoo have a lower self esteem
  was therefore supported.

Statement about the hypothesis. Note that some
authors refer to the null hypothesis, i.e.
whether it is rejected or not
Test statistic (t), degrees of freedom (df) and p
value
Summary of findings in relation to the actual
study
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Discussion (1)

• Explanation of findings
• State what your results show (one or two
  sentences) and
• whether the null hypothesis was accepted or
  rejected
• Discuss any features of your findings (trends,
  key results,
• aspects of graphs etc.)
• Highlight any notable results
• Example

The results indicate that people with tattoos
tend to have a significantly lower self esteem
than those with no tattoos. This means that the
experimental hypothesis can be accepted and the
null hypothesis rejected. Moreover, people with
no tattoos tend to be less variable in their self
esteem scores than those with tattoos.
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Discussion (2)

• Relate the findings
• to past research and theory already outlined in
  the Introduction
• Do your findings support or refute past
  research / theory?

Example
The present findings support those of Carroll and
Anderson (2002) and Turner (1999) who also found
that getting a tattoo was related to low self
esteem. However, this study cannot provide any
information on whether participants were getting
tattoos as a form of self mutilation or harm (cf.
Newman, 1982).
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Discussion (3)

• Outline flaws in / modifications of your study
• Critically review the methodological weaknesses
  of your study
• Consider the question of reliability and
  validity of the measures of your
• variables
• Comment on the sample and sampling technique,
  the statistical
• procedures used in particular, the issues of
  the power and
• sensitivity of the test
• Suggest reasonable modifications / extensions

Example - Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale is quite
old. So have the issues changed? - People may try
to work out what the researcher wants and answer
accordingly (social desirability) - Limited
population? Might be interesting to look at
certain group with tattoos (e.g. army, football
club etc.) - Is the number of participants
sufficient? Could you do with a few more?
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Discussion (4)

• Future research suggestions
• Should be well thought out and informed
• What Implications do the findings of the study
• have in relation to the real world?

• - Could do an interview study to look at
  motivations for getting tattoos
• - Look at the number of tattoos, not just 1
• Gender differences?
• (Females might use tattoos to remember events,
  such as the birth or death of children)
• Could compare different countries, as there may
  be cultural variations not related to
• self esteem (e.g. the Maoris of New Zealand)

- May be useful to have leaflets in tattoo
parlours discussing self esteem and other
methods of raising it. This would mean that
people thinking of getting a tattoo would be
able to make a more informed decision - Leaflets
could also give details of counselling services
in the area
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References

• In the main body of the text
• in accordance with the APA guidelines
• in alphabetical order according to the 1st author
• if at the end of a sentence (authors, year
  author, year)
• E.g. ..some see it as purely an art form
  (Vail, 1999),.
• within a sentence author (year)
• E.g. Coe, Harmon, Verner and Tonn (1993)
  discovered that tattoos
• are linked with group identity..
• quotes should be accompanied by the author(s),
  year, page number
• include all author names the first time you cite
  them (exception only
  if there are more than five names)
• the second and subsequent times 1st author et
  al.

Authors names are separated with a
semi-colon
Note no full stop
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Reference list

• The Reference list goes after the Discussion
  but before the Appendices
• It should be an alphabetical list of all names
  mentioned anywhere in the report

Examples Caplan, J. (2000). Written on the body
The tattoo in European and American history.
Princeton Princeton University Press. Newman,
G. (1982). The implications of tattooing in
prisoners. The Journal of Clinical
Psychiatry, 43, 231-234. Ready, S.K. (1987).
Search strategy in the research process
Sociology. In M. Reichel, M.A. Ramey
(Eds.), Conceptual frameworks for bibliographic
education Theory into practice (pp.
75-85). Littleton, CO Libraries Unlimited.
A book reference
An article reference
A book chapter reference
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Appendices Style

• Appendices
• Any information not included within the main body
  of the report but essential to it (e.g.
  materials, participant Information sheet, Consent
  form, Debriefing sheet, raw data, statistical
  calculations, SPSS print out) is included as
  Appendix 1, Appendix 2 etc.
• The appendices should be clearly numbered and
  entitled. They must be referred to
  by number within the main text
  (e.g. in the Materials section you might say For
  a copy of the full questionnaire see Appendix
  1.)
• Writing style
• Write impersonally and as the researcher /
  experimenter