Direct Instruction or Motivational Literature: Crossroad or Confluence

1
Direct Instruction orMotivational
LiteratureCrossroad or Confluence?
Direct Instruction
Motivational Literature
2

• As infinite as the human imagination are the
  theories and methods of reading instruction.

3

• Two major theories are
• Direct Instruction and Whole Language

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PresentationRationale
5

• It seems our country is in the midst of a
  Reading War
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  ages/politics.gif
• Direct Instruction
• (Especially phonics)
• VS.
• Any other instruction
• (Especially Whole Language or Literature-based)

6

• Many teachers may feel as if they are at a
  crossroad.

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Which is best for our students? Do we as
teachers have a choice anymore?
7

• Common to educators is the conviction that
  literature and language are to learning as water
  is to living

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• and prior knowledge in relevant text

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feeds new learning connections.
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• Recent graduates as well as experienced
  teachers are highly trained in such theory.
• Linguistic Theory
• Literary Theory
• Schema Theory

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Motivational Literature?

• Experienced teachers have likely used
  motivating, relevant literature to help their
  students read, some with Whole Language and
  others with a Basal series combining literature
  and skills.

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Direct Instruction?

• Legislation has mandated many of those same
  teachers to implement programs with an emphasis
  on more isolated skill instruction. Some
  teachers have even been using Direct Instruction
  strategies and programs that emphasize phonics in
  systematic isolation.

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• What political shift will mandate how we teach
  next?

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• What have we learned from the variety of theories
  and approaches weve implemented?

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• What do we really believe will help our
  studentsthat is realistically manageable?

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• This presentation grew from my crossroads
  experience.
• I am a special educator implementing a Direct
  Instruction reading program. This meticulously
  planned program has provided skill clarity to my
  students, especially those dealing with working
  memory problems.

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• Why do I stand at the crossroads questioning my
  future course?
• The students dont get to just read much.
• The students still arent excited about reading.
• The students who couldnt reach oral reading
  fluency milestones when they started the program,
  still struggle to do so, even though they have
  mastered incremental skills.
• They still struggle to comprehend basic story
  elements. Critical discussion of deeper meaning
  is further yet from their grasp.

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• Pupils must reach the point where they choose
  to read when there is nobody there to make them
  do it, before educators can really claim
  success.
• (Flurkey, Xu, and Goodman, 2003 )

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IF students in Direct Instruction programs arent
choosing to read
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THEN good teachers should ask why?
It is said Good teachers possess, an
insatiable desire to improve their own practice
and "reinvent" themselves in response to new
demands, challenges, and opportunities. (Cumming,
Owen, and Deakin, 2008)
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• If students arent excited about reading in spite
  of acquired skills, what would get them excited
  about reading?

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• Motivational literature about their own
  fascination could spark a flame
• but, a one hour Direct Instruction lesson
• does not include
• just-read-what-you-are-excited-about time.

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• Thus the question,
• Direct Instruction or Motivational
  LiteratureCrossroad or Confluence?
• Must isolated skills totally replace literature
  (because of mandates), or is there a way to bring
  the best of both together?

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Definition of Terms
23
Direct Instruction

• Teacher-centered instruction which includes
  lecture, presentation, and recitation.
• (Huitt, 1996)

24
Direct Instruction Components

• More teacher-directed instruction (gt 50) and
  less seatwork (lt 50)
• Active presentation of information (could be by
  teacher, computer, another student)
• -Gain students' attention
• -Providing motivational clues
• -Use advance organizers
• -Expose essential content
• -Pretesting/prompting of relevant knowledge
• 3. Clear organization of presentation
• -Component relationships
• -Sequential relationships
• -Relevance relationships
• -Transitional relationships

25
Direct Instruction Components Continued

• 4. Step-by-step progression from subtopic to
  subtopic (based on task analysis).
• 5. Use many examples, visual prompts, and
  demonstrations (to mediate between concrete and
  abstract concepts).
• 6. Constant assessment of student understanding
  (before, during and after the lesson).
• 7. Alter pace of instruction based on assessment
  of student understanding (you're teaching
  students, not content).
• 8. Effective use of time and maintaining
  students' attention (appropriate use of classroom
  management techniques). (Huitt, 1996)

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Phonics

• A method of learning, how the letters and
  sounds work together within a word. (Chall,
  1992)

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Phonics

• There are many designations and types
• Word analysis 5. Analogy-based
• Word attack 6. Alphabetic Principle
• Decoding 7. Synthetic
• Spelling-based 8. Analytic
• Synthetic phonics requires sounding out each
  letter.
• Analytic phonics requires identifying
  recognizable chunks or phonemes for word
  recognition.

28
Whole Language

• A philosophy of the language learning process,
  complex but unified, involving semantic,
  syntactic, and graphophonic elements bound
  together like the teaching process which engages
  children in making sense of and constructing
  whole texts rather than focusing on
  decontextualized bits and pieces. (Dombey,
  2004)
• Reading motivational, relevant literature in
  context is paramount vs. isolated skills.

29
Whole Language Components

• Process Writing (National Writing Project)
• Developmentally appropriate experience
• Multigrade and family grouping
• Cooperative and collaborative education
• Language across the curriculum
• Language experience reading
• Theme cycles and thematic units

30
Whole Language Components Continued

• Literature-based reading instruction
• Multicultural literature and experience
• Questioning strategies for student/teacher
• Child-centered teaching
• Critical pedagogy and thinking
• Nongraded schools
• Emergent literacy
• Authentic assessment

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Motivational Literature

• Motivational literature is text related to
• a favorite topic of intrinsic, personal
• interest or talent.
• (Fink and Samuels, 2008)

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Review of Research
33
Motivational Literature

• Teachers create contexts for engagement when
  they provide prominent knowledge goals,
  real-world connections to reading, meaningful
  choices about what, when, and how to read, and
  interesting texts that are familiar, vivid,
  important, and relevant.
• (Guthrie, 2000)

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Motivation and Interest

• The relationship of motivation and interest to
  learning is not new. In 1913 philosopher and
  educational reformer, John Dewey, wrote a book
  called, Interest and Effort in Education. He
  likened making things interesting to selecting
  subjects which relate to a childs present
  experience, powers, and needs, then presenting
  them so the child understands their significance
  to him.

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• If we can discover a childs urgent needs and
  powers, and if we can supply an environment of
  materials, appliances, and resources physical,
  social, and intellectual to direct their adequate
  operation, we shall not have to think about
  interest. It will take care of itself. For mind
  will have met with what it needs in order to be
  mind. The problem of educators, teachers,
  parents, the state, is to provide the environment
  that induces educative or developing activities,
  and where these are found the one thing needful
  in education is secured.
• (Dewey, 1913)

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Motivation and Interest

• Motivational literature has ties to the
  constructivist theory of learning which is
  child-centered vs. teacher-centered.
• Classic theorists such as Piaget and Vygotsky
  believed play (social, developmental,
  experiential, and motivational) was vital to
  learning.

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Motivation and Interest

• For more than 30 years the work of Ken and Yetta
  Goodman emphasized reading activity and
  assessment in the context of functional and
  motivational literature. The goal of reading for
  Ken Goodman was not just the mechanical retrieval
  of information, but active engagement
• with texts that matter
• to the reader.
• (Dombey, 2004)

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Motivation and Interest

• In the 1990s researchers like Oldfather, Guthrie,
  Wigfield, Hidi, Renninger and Alexander shed
  light on factors such as readers motivation,
  interests, goals, and engagement. The following
  captions highlight one thread (reading and
  literature) in a great tapestry of research on
  motivation and its impact on learning.

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Motivation and Interest

• Level of interest has repeatedly been found to
  influence learning. Interest has been found to
  influence attention, goals, cognitive processing,
  inferencing, comprehension, integration of prior
  knowledge, and level of learning. (Alexander
  Jetton, 1996 Hidi, 1990 Hidi Baird, 1988
  Krapp, Hidi, Renninger, 1992 Ainley, Hidi,
  Berndorff, 2002)

40
Motivation and Interest

• Readers who are individually interested are
  involved in knowledge seeking as they read the
  text because they actively pursue knowledge and
  skills associated with their own interests.
  (Alexander, 1997)

41
Motivation and Interest

• Teachers create contexts for engagement when
  they provide prominent knowledge goals,
  real-world connections to reading, meaningful
  choices about what, when, and how to read, and
  interesting texts that are familiar, vivid,
  important, and relevant. (Guthrie, 2001)

42
Motivation and Interest

• A recent national study by Rosalie Fink included
  66 successful men and women who had struggled
  with severe reading problems as children, but
  became successful professionals. Findings
  indicated that, by reading avidly about a topic
  of passionate, personal interest all of the
  striving readersbecame high level readers
• (Fink Samuels, 2008)

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• Review of Research Continued

44
Direct Instruction

• Direct Instruction grew out of the reading
  instruction research of Sigfried Engelmann and
  his associates, who developed the Direct
  Instruction System for Teaching Arithmetic and
  Reading (DISTAR) program more than 30 years ago.
• (Mac Iver, Kemper 2002)

45
Direct Instruction

• Engelmann became interested in philosophy and
  education as a parent and advertising executive,
  reviewing child psychology research for
  advertising clients marketing to kids.

This late blooming education back-ground was a
source of criticism for his theory and methods.
46
Direct Instruction

• In 1966 Engelmann was a Research Associate for
  the Institute for Research on Exceptional
  Children. During this period he directed two
  projects funded by the United States Office of
  Education.

47
Direct Instruction

• The first project marked the beginning of the
  Bereiter-Engelmann Preschool Program. Focusing on
  disadvantaged children between 4 and 6 years old,
  with Carl Bereiter he studied the effects of
  intensive instruction on the acceleration of
  cognitive performance demonstrating how
  well-crafted instruction could boost cognitive
  skills. This crafted instruction evolved into
  Direct Instruction.

48
Direct Instruction

• DI received particular attention as one of the
  most effective programs involved in Project
  Follow Through, a federal compensatory education
  program beginning in 1967 for low-income students
  in kindergarten through third grade. Because many
  educators perceived DI as rigid, it was not
  eagerly embraced by the educational mainstream.
• (Mac Iver, Kemper 2002)

49
Direct Instruction

• Project Follow Through was one of the world's
  largest educational experiments. It began in 1967
  under President Johnson and ran until 1995. More
  than 22 sponsors worked with over 180 sites. The
  model piloted by each school was selected by a
  panel of parents. The dark horse, Direct
  Instruction, was the most widely selected model
  in the experiment.
• (Grossen, 1995)

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• For more information about Project Follow
  Throughs interesting history and current impact
  visit Engelmanns own website or an article
  titled Overview The Story Behind Project Follow
  Through
• http//www.zigsite.com/
• http//www.uoregon.edu/adiep/ft/151toc.htm

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Direct Instruction

• There is a large body of research on the
  efficacy of Direct Instruction. Sadly, much of
  it is politically or special-interest biased,
  because within the overwhelming volume there is
  also reliable empirical data.

52
Direct Instruction

• However, a recent special issue of the Journal of
  Education for Students Placed At Risk is devoted
  to more recent studies of the Direct Instruction
  Reading Program.

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Direct Instruction

• The introduction article by Mac Iver and Kemper
  provides a simple and objective summary of the
  Project Follow Through Report data on the Direct
  Instruction model.
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  id71eab990-6c39-4552-8587-0cc47fa7594440sessionm
  gr8

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Direct Instruction

• A summarizing statement from that introduction
  says, Although there is considerable evidence
  that DI has a significant effect on decoding
  skills in reading as well as on vocabulary
  skills, there is much less evidence of an impact
  of the program on reading comprehension.
• (Mac Iver, Kemper 2002)

55
Direct Instruction

• Direct Instruction was included in The American
  Institutes for Research, An Educators Guide to
  Schoolwide Reform. It favorably indicated,
  Overall, there is strong evidence that Direct
  Instruction has a positive effect on student
  achievement. With some variation depending on
  the component of the DI approach being measured.
• (Herman, et al., 1999)

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Direct Instruction
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• In an impact conclusion article, the prior
  mentioned special issue of the Journal of
  Education for Students Placed At Risk, also
  reports on preliminary achievement outcomes of
  the first 4 years of direct instruction (DI)
  reading, implemented in 6 Baltimore elementary
  schools.

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Direct Instruction

• Perhaps most striking is the difference in rates
  of retention in grade between DI cohorts and
  control cohorts. There is also evidence of a
  positive impact on reading vocabulary test scores
  and measures of oral reading fluency, but no
  compelling evidence as to a significant effect of
  DI on reading comprehension (the primary
  dependent variable specified in the original
  evaluation plan). Although growth in reading
  comprehension achievement has occurred for
  students receiving DI, it does not appear to be
  significantly greater than for students receiving
  other reading instruction. This finding echoes
  previous findings regarding the impact of DI on
  reading comprehension.
• (Mac Iver and Kemper, 2002)

58
Direct Instruction

• Reading researcher and University of Illinois
  Professor Emeritus, Barak Rosenshine, also
  contributed an article to the special issue of
  the Journal of Education for Students Placed At
  Risk.

He stated
You can read an interview with Dr. Rosenshine on
the Baltimore Curriculum Project Newsletter link
below.
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Direct Instruction

• RM is an extremely effective program for
  teaching decoding to all children. No one
  disputes this. However, the critical and
  unanswered question is the effectiveness of RM,
  or any reading program, for teaching reading
  comprehension to children from a low-income
  background.
• (Rosenshine, 2002)
• RM is Reading Mastery, the name of a particular
  curricula offered by the Direct Instruction model.

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Balanced Approach?

• In a small study titled, Instructional
  Strategies Used by General Educators and Teachers
  of Students with Learning Disabilities A Survey
  Whole Language and Direct Instruction were
  compared.
• It described

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Balanced Approach?

• A survey was conducted to determine the
  instructional strategies used by special
  education teachers and general educators in
  teaching reading and writing, their philosophical
  approach (direct instruction or whole language),
  and what influenced teachers in making their
  philosophical decision

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Balanced Approach?

• The results indicated,The majority of
  respondents believe that a combination approach
  using both direct instruction and whole language
  is effective
• Interestingly, The most important factor
  influencing respondents' philosophical decisions
  in teaching reading and writing is their teacher
  training program emphasis.
• (Drecktrah and Chiang, 1997)

63
Review of Research Implications

• What does the research indicate?
• Direct Instruction has is a positive impact on
  achievement, particularly retention avoidance,
  decoding, reading vocabulary and oral reading.

64
Review of Research Implications

• 2. Direct Instruction does not show a positive
  impact on reading comprehension to date.

65
Review of Research Implications

• 3. Interest and motivation (whether in Whole
  Language, Literature-based, or Balanced Approach
  reading programs) positively impact reading
  comprehension.

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Review of Research Implications

• Thus students in need of specially designed
  instruction as a last tier Response To
  Intervention may continue to benefit from the
  clear, repetitive, incremental programming of
  Direct Instruction for basic reading achievement.
  However, if they are to comprehend, they may
  also need consistent time to really read real
  literature with deeper meaning.

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Student Intervention

• Therefore, starting small, an intervention for
  balancing Direct Instruction and Motivational
  Literature was attempted as part of this
  presentation to explore the possibility of
  combining some real reading time with
  Motivational Literature and a Direct Instruction
  Day.

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Steps to Intervention

• Principal and parent permission was obtained.
• Collaboration was discussed with involved
  teachers and librarians.

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Steps to Intervention

• Teacher collaboration began to select a
  student(s) with which to work.
• -Need for additional intervention was based on
  students inability to attain incremental,
  ongoing Direct Instruction assessment measures of
  fluency and comprehension.

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Steps to Intervention

• 4. Academic schedule was considered with
  collaborating teachers, to find a time in the
  school day a student(s) could be given time to
  read and work with implementer.

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Steps to Intervention

• Availability of student(s) in a teacher selected
  time slot was considered.
• As anticipated

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Obstacle to Intervention

• Steps 5 and 6 were the biggest obstacles to
  intervention. 3 teachers were offered the
  intervention before one could agree on a time
  slot of 30 minutes before the start of the
  academic day. One third grade student got off
  the bus early enough to participate, who fit our
  criteria. This was the best we could do.

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• First session
• Implementer took student to the school library
  and established rapport
• Implementer completed an interest survey via
  interview/discussion format
• Student selected a book to
• read orally, The Mitten,
• by Jan Brett
• 4. Implementer listened supportively while
  conducting a Running Record

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Student Intervention

• Second session
• Implementer took student to the school book fair
  to pick out 2 books for helping with a reading
  project

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Student Intervention

• Second session continued
• 2. Two books were selected by the student, both
  on topics the student mentioned in the interest
  survey conducted in session 1
• -Pandas
• -Fancy Nancy at the Museum
• 3. Student perused the books

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Student Intervention

• Third session
• To conduct a metacognitive survey the implementer
  and student role-played. The student was a grown
  up teacher and writer and had been selected to
  win a Reading Hall of Fame award as one of the
  worlds great readers and writers.
• The implementer played interviewer with a
  microphone and clip board for newspaper article
  notes (survey).

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Student Intervention

• Third session continued
• 3. The student enjoyed the metacognitive survey
  role play. However, she answered, I dont know
  to 3 of the 8 questions. Indicating need for
  more self-efficacy and strategy awareness. She
  indicated something she could improve about her
  reading was to be faster and to read more of
  the hard words. Something she liked about
  reading was, just reading sometimes.

78
Student Intervention

• Fourth session
• Implementer explained this session was just a fun
  reading time
• Student selected Panda from the Book Fair
• Implementer read Fancy Nancy
• Student and Implementer sat at bean bag seats to
  read
• Implementer modeled spontaneous laughter and
  comments about Nancys nice teacher
• Student followed model with comments about the
  Chinese panda coin in her book

79
Student Intervention

• Fifth session
• Implementer traded books from last session with
  student.
• After reading, both implementer and student knew
  storyline for each book.
• A book discussion ensued.
• Student and implementer role-played seeing a
  movie about the books and coming home to tell Mom
  all about them (retell rehearsal).
• Implementer modeled first.

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Student Intervention

• Sixth session
• Implementer and student went back to school
  library to meet with librarian
• Worked together to develop a list of motivating
  books on the students independent reading level
  to be borrowed during library class for continued
  reading

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Student Intervention

• Seventh session
• Implementer, student and teacher met to review
  library book list and discuss times during the
  school day for continued reading.
• Implementer made a plan with student and teacher
  to come back before winter break to read, check
  on progress, or add to list.

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82
Discussion and Summary
Research appears to be telling us that a
balanced approach to literacy is necessary.
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83
Discussion and Summary

• Strict adherence to one particular approach may
  prove most effective over time for a student who
  needs it and blooms. However, no conclusive data
  exists to say that all children will learn best
  under one strict method

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OR THAT ONE SIZE FITS ALL!
84
Discussion and Summary

• On the contrary, it seems to be telling us one
  approach may work better for reading than for
  comprehending, and one approach may work better
  for some populations of learners than others.

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85
Discussion and Summary

• It appears to be purposeful and possible to
  provide students with phonemic awareness,
  alphabetic principle, and fluency with Direct
  Instruction methods. However, it also appears
  that motivating literature must be used to impart
  meaning to the reading process. And vice versa,
  if Whole Language methods are used, phonics and
  skills must be consciously and carefully embedded.

86
Discussion and Summary

• Attempts to add a motivational literature and
  independent reading component to Direct
  Instruction proved challenging. Time was the
  biggest factor. It was challenging to find time
  in the crammed school day, and it took a lot of
  time to find appropriate books.

87
Recommendations

• Spend time doing interest surveys with your
  students. Directly asking them what they like
  avoids assumption and saves time in the long run.
• Work with the librarian to help you create
  motivational literature lists individualized for
  your students. Librarians can be very helpful
  and knowledgeable resources.
• Never regret giving kids time to just read if
  they have an appropriate book.

88
Recommendations

• Finally, you may not meet with success in fitting
  use of motivational literature into your Direct
  Instruction period(s). Be creative. Look for
  other times in the day to prioritize it, but make
  it fun, not just filler. I am considering
  starting a Reading Club for indoor recess days
  next year!

89

• Above all, combining any approaches is not a
  matter of throwing them all at the wall to see
  what sticks. Do what you do well. Assess,
  observe, consider and pull the right tool for the
  right student from your good ole overstocked
  tool chest. Believe in your talent and
  commitment as an educator to make the right
  choice for each individual learner.

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• And never give up on the real thingrelevant,
  motivating literature. Ill meet you at the
  confluence!

91
References

• 1. Alexander, P.A. (1997). Knowledge seeking and
  self-schema A case for the motivational
  dimensions of exposition. Educational
  Psychologist, 32, 83-94
• 2. Cumming, Jim, Christine Owen, and Deakin.
  Australian Coll. of Education. Reforming Schools
  through Innovative Teaching. (01 Mar. 2001).
  ERIC. EBSCO. Remote, Pgh, PA. 4 Dec. 2008
  http//search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?directtrue
  dbericANED456268siteehost-live.
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