HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
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• Developmental psychology
• The field that studies physical, mental and
  social changes across the life span

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• Developmental Issues
• Nature vs. Nurture
• Continuity vs. Stages
• Stability vs. Change

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• Research Methods in Development
• Longitudinal design
• Same individuals are observed and tested over
  time.
• Cross-sectional
• Groups of participants from one age group are
  observed, tested and compared with another group
  of a differing age.

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• What are we going to study?
• Physical development
• Cognitive development
• Social development
• Moral development

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• Developmental Theories
• Cognitive Development
• Jean Piaget
• Lev Vygotsky
• Social Development
• Erik Erikson
• Moral Development
• Lawrence Kohlberg

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

• Piaget s Stages of Cognitive Development
• 20s through 40s
• Freudian vs. Learning
• 50s
• Learning champs
• Late 50s to 60s
• Cognition
• 70s and 80s
• Piagets theories dominate
• Mechanistic to an organismic approach

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• Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
• Switzerland
• Biology and philosophy
• Epistemology
• The study of knowledge and how we know what we
  know
• Developed genetic epistemology
• Origins of knowledge and how we develop what we
  know.
• Helped development intelligence test in France
• Interested in the errors children made

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• Children would develop in optimal way
• Humans act on world, not passive
• Organism functioned as a structured whole
• Children went through sequence of structured
  reorganizationshence stages!
• Great observer of children
• Rejected behaviorist traditions
• Anything you tell a child, you prevent him from
  discovering for himself.

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• Foundation for Piagets theories rested on some
  developmental processes
• Frame of reference
• What we already know
• Filters everything we learn
• Affects how we construct knowledge

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• Schema or scheme
• Basic unit of understanding
• Pattern of knowing something
• How the things that we know are stored in our
  mind
• Make up frames of reference
• Born with some schemes
• Looking, grasping and sucking schemes

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• Assimilation and accommodation
• Placing new information in our current schemes
• Schemes need to be modified
• Requires generalization
• Distorts reality and not adapt

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• Accommodation is the process of adjusting or
  modifying our current schemes
• Allows us to modify current schemes
• Create new schemes
• Assim. Accom tons of interconnected schemes
  that make up your mental structure

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• Equilibration
• Equilibrium
• The back and forth of assim. and accom, bringing
  it to a balance is called the equilibration
  process
• Thats how we adapt to the world or intelligence
• Dynamic process
• Sometimes feel disequilibrium
• Cant assim. or accom.
• Too much of either without the other causes
  problems

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• Piagets Stages
• Stages major shifts in equilibria
• Qualitative shifts not quantitative
• Each stage is dependent on the previous one
• Kids develop through stages at different rates
• Applies to all cultures and all developmental
  domains

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• Four major stages or periods
• Sensory-motor
• Birth to 1824 mos. (infancy)
• Reflex schemes to symbol use
• Pre-operational
• 18-24 mos to six-seven years (preschool years)
• Basic symbolic skills to mastering symbolic
  thinking

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• Concrete-operational
• Six-seven to eleven to twelve (middle childhood
  years)
• Beginning of multiple representations and
  cognitive operations to formal thinking.
• Formal-operational
• Eleven-twelve to adulthood
• Mastered during adolescence
• Reason hypothetically and in highly abstract ways

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• Sensory Motor period
• Everything child knows comes through senses and
  motoric actions.
• No symbolic skills
• Something that stands for something else
  (referent)
• Live in the present
• Lack of object permanence
• Memory
• Means-end causality
• Learn how real world works and develop skills for
  symbolism

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• Heres how it progresses
• Starts off with reflexive schemes
• Voluntary control of behavior
• Means end causality
• Pays attention to variation in end results
• Experiment with means to test the end results
• Insight learning
• Increase of symbol use
• Pretend play
• Recall of memory

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• Pre-operational period
• Symbol use is beginning
• Not tied to here and now
• No longer require sensory input to think of
  things
• Overt act not necessary for causality and how
  things work
• Perfect ability to have anything stand for
  anything else

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• Some things they cannot do during this stage
• Tend to focus on only one thing or one aspect of
  a situation at a time.
• Decenter
• Lack of conservation skills
• Lack a theory of mind
• Problem with perspective taking
• Ability to see a situation from more than one
  point of view
• Egocentric thinking
• The five to seven year shift
• Multiple representational ability

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• Concrete Operations
• Operations
• Mental transformation
• A thing or an idea that can be performed and also
  reversed or brought back to original state.
• Concrete
• Real life situations they can relate to.
• Classify world and learn about relations and
  causality though their own logic, not just on
  observation.

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• Conservation
• Other implications
• Conceptualization of kindness
• Absolute behaviors
• Relative terms

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• Formal Operational
• Abstract thinking
• Extraction of general laws and principles from
  specific instances
• Could now deal with hypothesis or propositions in
  the abstract form without concrete instances.

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• Hypothetical situations
• Idealistic thinking
• Abstract forms of logic
• Perform operations on operations
• Algebra and calculus
• Tackling philosophical and theoretical questions

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• Problems with Piaget
• Impossible to disprove
• Misjudged the ages of the children
• Focused too much on development of logical
  thought
• Question of generality across domains

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ANOTHER COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

• Vygotskys Cognitive-Mediation Theory
• Focuses on how social interactions influence
  cognitive development
• Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)
• Dialetic view of change
• Between individuals and others
• Lone scientist vs. apprentice
• Collaborator

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• Why called cognitive-mediation?
• Kinda like animals
• We have tools (mental or psychological) to help
  us think
• Tools come from our culture
• Psychological tools help us mediate between
  outside stimuli and the responses.
• Symbols
• From others, not ourselves

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• Language is the most important tool
• Others provide language and symbols
• Egocentric speech
• Inner speech
• Internalization
• Children cooperate

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• Zone of proximal development
• Represents an area bordered by what a child has
  mastered to what a child can do in the best of
  circumstances
• Actual level
• Everything below has been mastered (past)
• Potential level
• Everything above is currently unattainable
  (future)
• The zone is everything in-between
• Development was more continuous than stages.

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• Zone is dynamic not static
• Zone is only applicable to one specific task
• Everybodys zone and speed of progression is
  different
• Others can help a child progress through the zone
• Scaffolding
• Jerome Bruner
• Remove once task can be done independently

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Eriksons Psycho-Social Theory

• Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
• Neo-Freudians and ego psychologist
• Homburger
• Faced prejudice
• Drifted around
• Trained with Anna Freud
• Worked in United States

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• Face different problems at different ages
• Must resolve the issues or gain mastery
• Understand who he/she is or develop coherent
  identity

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• Events or issues faced is called series of crisis
• Emotional reaction gt feel peace
• Emerging skill, increased opportunity and
  obligations
• Either you master it or not
• Mastery goes in order

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• Eriksons Stages of Psychosocial Development
• Trust vs. mistrust
• Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
• Initiative vs. guilt
• Industry vs. inferiority
• Identity vs. role confusion
• Intimacy vs. isolation
• Generativity vs. stagnation
• Integrity vs. despair

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• If stage is not resolved, could go back to it
  later in life.
• Though each crises is the main focus at the
  specific age
• all crisis and issues are always present

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• Two major issues continue to recycle throughout
  our lives
• Sense of connectedness
• Sense of independence

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• First four stages
• Perfect example of how connectedness leads to
  independence
• Trust vs. mistrust
• First year / Success is achieved by having a
  secure social attachment
• Lack of predictability and control
• Means ends relationships
• Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
• Second year / Success is achieved by gaining a
  degree of independence from ones parents
• Self control and mastery regarding self care
  issues

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• Initiative vs. guilt
• 3 5 years / Success is achieved by behaving in
  a spontaneous but socially appropriate way
• Trying to master more skills
• Industry vs. inferiority
• 6 years to puberty / Success is achieved by
  developing a sense of competency
• Industry
• Adds to independence by mastering more skills and
  knowledge
• Mastery and competance in something a big deal
• Do I fit in?

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• New foundation of independence new level of
  connectedness and trust
• Identity vs. role confusion
• Adolescence / Success is achieved by establishing
  a sense of personal identity.
• Physical changes
• Who am I? (a formal operational question)
• Through all these changes, whats consistent?
• Try out many different things
• Yet very conforming to peers

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• James Marcia
• Identify achievement
• Foreclosure
• Diffusion
• Moratorium
• Alienated achievement (added during the Vietnam
  War)

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• Intimacy vs. isolation
• Young adulthood / Success is achieved by
  establishing a relationship with a strong sense
  of emotional attachment and personal commitment
• Achieving previous stage important in
  establishing this one
• Intimacy involves placing trust and future in
  another persons hands
• Marriage andfriendships

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• Generativity vs. stagnation
• Middle Adulthood / Success is achieved by
  becoming less self-absorbed and more concerned
  with the well being of others.
• Generativity commitment beyond oneself to
  family, work, society, or future generations.
• Parenting
• Give up independence for more connectedness

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• Ego integrity vs. ego despair
• Late Adulthood / Success is achieved by
  reflecting back on ones life and finding that it
  has been meaningful.
• Some obvious developmental changes here
• Integrity
• Integrated life
• Accepting life as is.
• Integrated connectedness and independence
• Coming to terms with death

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• Elizabeth Kubler Ross
• Denial
• Anger
• Bargaining
• Depression
• Acceptance

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• Criticisms
• Universality of stages
• Great description but lacks real explanation
  other than metaphorical
• Never get to ego integrity
• Do we all have the same motivations?
• Nevertheless
• Development is a life long phenomenon
• No need to give up to despair if childhood wasnt
  optimal

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MORAL DEVELOPMENT

• Kohlbergs Theory of Moral Development
• Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)
• Born in New York
• Parents divorced
• Helped Jews escape
• Enrolled at University of Chicago
• Taught University of Chicago, Yale and Harvard
• Married divorced
• Committed suicide

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• Preconventional
• Conventional
• Postconventional

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• Preconventional
• The level of moral reasoning characterized by
  concern with the consequences that behavior has
  for oneself
• 1. Punishment orientation
• Compliance to rules to avoid punishment
• 2. Reward orientation
• Compliance with rules to obtain rewards and
  satisfy own needs

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• Conventional
• The level of moral reasoning characterized by
  concern with upholding laws and conventional
  values and by favoring obedience to authority.
• Good boy/nice girl orientation
• Engages in behavior to get approval of others
• 4. Law and order orientation
• Behavior is guided by duty to uphold laws and
  rules for their own sake.

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• Postconventional
• The level of moral reasoning characterized by
  concern with obeying mutually agreed upon laws
  and the need to uphold human dignity.
• 5. Social-contract legalistic orientation
• Obeys rules because they are necessary for social
  order but understands rules are relative
• 6. Universal ethical principle orientation
• Concerned about self-condemnation for violating
  universal ethical principles based on human
  rights.

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CAROL GILLIGANS STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

• Justice vs. caring for others
• Preconventional
• What is helpful or harmful to myself?
• Conventional
• What is helpful or harmful to other people?
• Postconventional
• What is helpful or harmful to myself and others?

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PIAGET AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT

• Morality of constraint or heterogenous morality
• subject to anothers law
• Ages four through 7
• Moral wrongness is defined in terms of adult
  sanctions
• Justice is served by quick severe punishment

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• Morality of cooperation or autonomous morality
• subject to ones own law
• About 8 yrs of age (hmmmcurious)
• Moral flexibility
• Intentions vs. consequences
• Favor of restitution as punishment
• Abandonment of immanent justice

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• Social attachment
• Sigmund Freud
• Cupboard theory
• John Bolby (1907-1990)
• WWII orphans
• Harry Harlow
• Monkeys
• Contact comfort

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• Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999)
• Securely attached
• Insecurely attached
• Strange Situation
• Securely attached infant seeks physical
  comfort, freely leaves to play and explore,
  mother as a secure base, shows minor distress if
  mother leaves.
• Insecurely attached
• Anxious/resistant do not explore, upset and
  panicky when she leaves, ambivalent when mother
  returns, crying and running to be picked up,
  kicking and slapping to get down
• Anxious/avoidant distant and aloof, search when
  mom absent, snub her when she returns
• Sensitive, accepting and affectionate mother
• Paternal sensitivity also important

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MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION ON DEVELOPMENT

• Parent and Child Relationships
• Diana Baumrind
• Permissive
• Set few rules, rarely punish, less likely to
  adopt positive standards of behavior
• Authoritarian
• Strict rules, relies of punishment, physical
  discipline
• Abused children lower self-esteem, socially
  withdrawn, more aggressive and less empathetic to
  others in distress
• Most abusers were abused children, but most
  abused children do not become abusers

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• Authoritative
• Parent is warm and loving, yet sets well-defined
  limits that he or she enforces in an appropriate
  manner.
• Encourage independence within limits, explains
  rules and permit children to express verbal
  disagreement
• Children more likely to become socially
  competent, independent and responsible
• Less likely to use drugs, do better in school,
  socially well adjusted
• Cultural perceptions

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• Cognitive Development in adults
• Decline in intelligence starts about age 60
• Fluid intelligence
• Reflects reasoning ability, memory capacity, and
  speed of information processing
• Crystallized intelligence
• Reflects knowledge acquired through schooling and
  in everyday life.
• Hits short-term memory
• Hormone therapy
• Men have shorter but happier old age, women live
  longer but in poor health