Argument Task

1
Argument Task
2
Introduction

• An argument consists of facts or evidence,
  assumptions, and conclusions

Assumptions
Evidence
Conclusion
3
Introduction

• The strength of the assumptions will show how
  well-reasoned an argument is
• Your task is to analyze the assumptions

4
Introduction

• The "Analyze an Argument" task assesses
• your ability to understand, analyze, and evaluate
  arguments
• to clearly convey your analysis in writing.
• You will be given a brief passage in which the
  author
• makes a case for some course of action or
  interpretation of events, and
• presents claims for this case backed by reasons
  and evidence.
• You must discuss the logical soundness of the
  author's case by critically examining the line of
  reasoning and the use of evidence.

5
Introduction

• You must analyze the line of reasoning of the
  argument
• You need to recognize the separate, sometimes
  implicit steps in the thinking process, and
• consider whether the movement from each one to
  the next is logically sound.
• Transition words will be given as signposts in
  the argument
• however
• thus
• therefore
• evidently
• apparently
• hence
• in conclusion

6
Introduction

• It may help if you have taken philosophy classes,
  but
• you will not be required to know the jargon of
  formal logic (modens ponens, non sequitur, post
  hoc, etc.)
• Common sense and logical thinking should be all
  you need.

7
Sample Topic
The following appeared in a memorandum from a
dean at Omega University.   Fifteen years ago,
Omega University implemented a new procedure that
encouraged students to evaluate the teaching
effectiveness of all their professors. Since that
time, Omega professors have begun to assign
higher grades in their classes, and overall
student grade averages at Omega have risen by
thirty percent. Potential employers apparently
believe the grades at Omega are inflated this
would explain why Omega graduates have not been
as successful at getting jobs as have graduates
from nearby Alpha University. To enable its
graduates to secure better jobs, Omega University
should now terminate student evaluation of
professors.

• Discuss how well-reasoned you find this argument
  to be.

8
Sample topic
The following appeared in a memorandum from a
dean at Omega University.   Fifteen years ago,
Omega University implemented a new procedure that
encouraged students to evaluate the teaching
effectiveness of all their professors. Since that
time, Omega professors have begun to assign
higher grades in their classes, and overall
student grade averages at Omega have risen by
thirty percent. Potential employers apparently
believe the grades at Omega are inflated this
would explain why Omega graduates have not been
as successful at getting jobs as have graduates
from nearby Alpha University. To enable its
graduates to secure better jobs, Omega University
should now terminate student evaluation of
professors.

• Identify facts, assumptions, and conclusions.

9
Sample topic
The following appeared in a memorandum from a
dean at Omega University.   Fifteen years ago,
Omega University implemented a new procedure that
encouraged students to evaluate the teaching
effectiveness of all their professors. Since that
time, Omega professors have begun to assign
higher grades in their classes, and overall
student grade averages at Omega have risen by
thirty percent. Potential employers apparently
believe the grades at Omega are inflated this
would explain why Omega graduates have not been
as successful at getting jobs as have graduates
from nearby Alpha University. To enable its
graduates to secure better jobs, Omega University
should now terminate student evaluation of
professors.

• FACTS
• Omega University started student evaluations 15
  years ago
• In the last 15 years, overall GPAs have risen 30
• Omega graduates are not as successful at getting
  jobs as Alpha University graduates.

10
Sample topic
The following appeared in a memorandum from a
dean at Omega University.   Fifteen years ago,
Omega University implemented a new procedure that
encouraged students to evaluate the teaching
effectiveness of all their professors. Since that
time, Omega professors have begun to assign
higher grades in their classes, and overall
student grade averages at Omega have risen by
thirty percent. Potential employers apparently
believe the grades at Omega are inflated this
would explain why Omega graduates have not been
as successful at getting jobs as have graduates
from nearby Alpha University. To enable its
graduates to secure better jobs, Omega University
should now terminate student evaluation of
professors.

• FACTS
• Omega University started student evaluations 15
  years ago
• In the last 15 years, overall GPAs have risen 30
• Omega graduates are not as successful at getting
  jobs as Alpha University graduates.

11
Sample topic
The following appeared in a memorandum from a
dean at Omega University.   Fifteen years ago,
Omega University implemented a new procedure that
encouraged students to evaluate the teaching
effectiveness of all their professors. Since that
time, Omega professors have begun to assign
higher grades in their classes, and overall
student grade averages at Omega have risen by
thirty percent. Potential employers apparently
believe the grades at Omega are inflated this
would explain why Omega graduates have not been
as successful at getting jobs as have graduates
from nearby Alpha University. To enable its
graduates to secure better jobs, Omega University
should now terminate student evaluation of
professors.

• FACTS
• Omega University started student evaluations 15
  years ago
• In the last 15 years, overall GPAs have risen 30
• Omega graduates are not as successful at getting
  jobs as Alpha University graduates.

12
Sample topic
The following appeared in a memorandum from a
dean at Omega University.   Fifteen years ago,
Omega University implemented a new procedure that
encouraged students to evaluate the teaching
effectiveness of all their professors. Since that
time, Omega professors have begun to assign
higher grades in their classes, and overall
student grade averages at Omega have risen by
thirty percent. Potential employers apparently
believe the grades at Omega are inflated this
would explain why Omega graduates have not been
as successful at getting jobs as have graduates
from nearby Alpha University. To enable its
graduates to secure better jobs, Omega University
should now terminate student evaluation of
professors.

• FACTS
• Omega University started student evaluations 15
  years ago
• In the last 15 years, overall GPAs have risen 30
• Omega graduates are not as successful at getting
  jobs as Alpha University graduates.

13
Sample topic
The following appeared in a memorandum from a
dean at Omega University.   Fifteen years ago,
Omega University implemented a new procedure that
encouraged students to evaluate the teaching
effectiveness of all their professors. Since that
time, Omega professors have begun to assign
higher grades in their classes, and overall
student grade averages at Omega have risen by
thirty percent. Potential employers apparently
believe the grades at Omega are inflated this
would explain why Omega graduates have not been
as successful at getting jobs as have graduates
from nearby Alpha University. To enable its
graduates to secure better jobs, Omega University
should now terminate student evaluation of
professors.

• Find assumptions (on some questions, assumptions
  will be implicit)

14
Sample topic
The following appeared in a memorandum from a
dean at Omega University.   Fifteen years ago,
Omega University implemented a new procedure that
encouraged students to evaluate the teaching
effectiveness of all their professors. Since that
time, Omega professors have begun to assign
higher grades in their classes, and overall
student grade averages at Omega have risen by
thirty percent. Potential employers apparently
believe the grades at Omega are inflated this
would explain why Omega graduates have not been
as successful at getting jobs as have graduates
from nearby Alpha University. To enable its
graduates to secure better jobs, Omega University
should now terminate student evaluation of
professors.

• ASSUMPTIONS
• Potential employers apparently believe grades are
  inflated and are not hiring Omega graduates.

15
Sample topic
The following appeared in a memorandum from a
dean at Omega University.   Fifteen years ago,
Omega University implemented a new procedure that
encouraged students to evaluate the teaching
effectiveness of all their professors. Since that
time, Omega professors have begun to assign
higher grades in their classes, and overall
student grade averages at Omega have risen by
thirty percent. Potential employers apparently
believe the grades at Omega are inflated this
would explain why Omega graduates have not been
as successful at getting jobs as have graduates
from nearby Alpha University. To enable its
graduates to secure better jobs, Omega University
should now terminate student evaluation of
professors.

• CONCLUSION
• Omega University should terminate student
  evaluations to enable its students to get better
  jobs

16
Look for alternate explanations or counterexamples
17
Analysis

• Think of what additional evidence might weaken or
  lend support to the claims
• Additional information about Alpha University
• its GPA stats,
• its graduate hiring stats
• Additional information from potential employers
• surveys of their hiring practices

18
Analysis

• Ask yourself what changes in the argument would
  make the reasoning more sound

19
Write the essay

• Paragraph 1 (Introduction)
• Rephrase their argument and recommendation
• Briefly explain your evaluation of their argument

20
Write the essay

• Paragraph 1
• This argument maintains that Omega U. grads are
  having difficulties finding jobs because
  employers think their grades have been inflated.
  It relies on the fact that Omega Us grade
  averages have risen 30 in the 15 years since
  student evaluations were introduced, and also on
  a comparison with the job-finding success of
  grads from nearby Alpha U. Based on this
  evidence, the author of the argument believes
  that the student evaluations are causing the lack
  of employment success of Omega grads and should
  be eliminated. When we examine the arguments
  assumptions, however, it is apparent that many
  other factors could account for the plight of
  Omega grads, and that more information should be
  gathered before a solution is implemented.

21
Write the essay

• Body paragraphs (2nd, 3rd, 4th)
• Give specific support of explanation
• First , the 30 rise in Omega University's grade
  average since the student evaluations were
  implemented 15 years ago could have come about
  from factors other than just the evaluations
• Second, the comparison of Omega graduates to
  Alpha graduates has several potential holes

22
Write the essay

• Conclusion
• Restate your position
• Suggest improvements for the argument

23
Write the essay

• Conclusion
• While the student evaluations may be a factor
  contributing to Omegas rise in grades, more
  information must be gathered before concluding
  that stopping them will bring about a higher
  hiring rate for Omega grads. Even if the
  evaluations do prove to be the major cause of the
  grade increase, research would still be needed to
  demonstrate that employers arent hiring Omega
  grads largely because of their inflated grades.
  In order to make this demonstration, surveys of
  potential Omega-grad employers regarding their
  opinion of the quality of an Omega education, as
  well as their impressions of the Omega grads
  theyve interviewed, would serve as stronger
  evidence than a blanket comparison to the more
  employable Alpha U. grads.

24
Summary of steps

• Carefully read the argument
• Identify facts, assumptions, and conclusions
• Look for alternate explanations or
  counterexamples
• Think of what additional evidence might weaken or
  lend support to the claims
• Ask yourself what changes in the argument would
  make the reasoning more sound

25
Quick note on numbers

• You will not be tested specifically on your math
  skills,
• but watch for percentages . . . they may help
  your argument.
• For example, if funding should be given to school
  clubs whose membership increases by 50,
• How many new members are need for funding of a
  club of
• 100 members?
• 50 members?
• 2 members?
• Is it fair to give the same funding to a club who
  finds 1 new member as it is to a club who finds
  50 new members?

26
Deconstructing a 6
Hospital statistics regarding people who go to
the emergency room after roller skating accidents
indicate the need for more protective equipment.
Within this group of people, 75 percent of those
who had accidents in streets or parking lots were
not wearing any protective clothing (helmets,
knee pads, etc.) or any light-reflecting material
(clip-on lights, glow-in-the-dark wrist pads,
etc.). Clearly, these statistics indicate that by
investing in high-quality protective gear and
reflective equipment, roller skaters will
greatly reduce their risk of being severely
injured in an accident.

• Identify FACTS
• 75 of those who had accidents in streets or
  parking lots go to the ER after a roller skating
  accident were not wearing either protective gear
  or reflective material

27
Deconstructing a 6
Hospital statistics regarding people who go to
the emergency room after roller skating accidents
indicate the need for more protective equipment.
Within this group of people, 75 percent of those
who had accidents in streets or parking lots were
not wearing any protective clothing (helmets,
knee pads, etc.) or any light-reflecting material
(clip-on lights, glow-in-the-dark wrist pads,
etc.). Clearly, these statistics indicate that by
investing in high-quality protective gear and
reflective equipment, roller skaters will
greatly reduce their risk of being severely
injured in an accident.

• Identify ASSUMPTIONS/ CONCLUSIONS
• Because of these statistics,
• all roller skaters will reduce their risk of
  being severely injured if they buy high-quality
  protective and reflective gear

28
Deconstructing a 6

• FACTS
• 75 of those who had accidents in streets or
  parking lots go to the ER after a roller skating
  accident were not wearing either protective or
  reflective material

What percentage of ALL roller skaters go to the
ER? How injured were the other 25 who were
wearing gear?
29
Deconstructing a 6

• FACTS
• 75 of those who had accidents in streets or
  parking lots go to the ER after a roller skating
  accident were not wearing either protective gear
  or reflective material

What about those who were not in streets or
parking lots? People who skate in streets tend
to be less cautious, and in more dangerous
environments than those who skate responsibly
30
Deconstructing a 6

• FACTS
• 75 of those who had accidents in streets or
  parking lots go to the ER after a roller skating
  accident were not wearing either protective gear
  or reflective material

Not everyone who is injured goes to the ER. How
severe were the injuries presented in the ER?
31
Deconstructing a 6

• CONCLUSIONS
• all roller skaters will reduce their risk of
  being severely injured if they buy high-quality
  protective gear and reflective material

Are roller skaters who go to the ER
representative of all roller skaters?
32
Deconstructing a 6

• CONCLUSIONS
• all roller skaters will reduce their risk of
  being severely injured if they buy high-quality
  protective gear and reflective material

What evidence from the ER is there to support
that skater not wearing protective and reflective
gear were SEVERLY injured?
33
Deconstructing a 6

• CONCLUSIONS
• all roller skaters will reduce their risk of
  being severely injured if they buy high-quality
  protective gear and reflective material

Why high quality? Could medium quality work as
well?
34
Deconstructing a 6

• CONCLUSIONS
• all roller skaters will reduce their risk of
  being severely injured if they buy high-quality
  protective gear and reflective material

What about those who wore protective gear but not
reflective material, and vice versa? Do
statistics support that roller skaters need
both? Do those who dont skate on streets or in
parking lots need reflective material?
35
Deconstructing a 6

• CONCLUSIONS
• all roller skaters will reduce their risk of
  being severely injured if they buy high-quality
  protective gear and reflective material

Were there other factors involved, such as
weather, time of day, skill, or location that
would cause more or less accidents?
36
Deconstructing a 6

• The notion that protective gear reduces the
  injuries suffered in accidents seems at first
  glance to be an obvious conclusion. After all, it
  is the intent of these products to either provent
  accidents from occuring in the first place or to
  reduce the injuries suffered by the wearer should
  an accident occur. However, the conclusion that
  investing in high quality protective gear greatly
  reduces the risk of being severely injured in an
  accident may mask other (and potentially more
  significant) causes of injuries and may inspire
  people to over invest financially and
  psychologically in protective gear.

Summary of argument
37
Deconstructing a 6

• The notion that protective gear reduces the
  injuries suffered in accidents seems at first
  glance to be an obvious conclusion. After all, it
  is the intent of these products to either provent
  accidents from occuring in the first place or to
  reduce the injuries suffered by the wearer should
  an accident occur. However, the conclusion that
  investing in high quality protective gear greatly
  reduces the risk of being severely injured in an
  accident may mask other (and potentially more
  significant) causes of injuries and may inspire
  people to over invest financially and
  psychologically in protective gear.

Summary of analysis
38
Deconstructing a 6

• First of all, as mentioned in the argument, there
  are two distinct kinds of gear - preventative
  gear (such as light reflecting material) and
  protective gear (such as helmets). Preventative
  gear is intended to warn others, presumably for
  the most part motorists, of the presence of the
  roller skater. It works only if the "other" is a
  responsible and caring individual who will afford
  the skater the necessary space and attention.
  Protective gear is intended to reduce the effect
  of any accident, whether it is caused by an
  other, the skater or some force of nature.
  Protective gear does little, if anything, to
  prevent accidents but is presumed to reduce the
  injuries that occur in an accident. The
  statistics on injuries suffered by skaters would
  be more interesting if the skaters were grouped
  into those wearing no gear at all, those wearing
  protective gear only, those wearing preventative
  gear only and those wearing both. These
  statistics could provide skaters with a clearer
  understanding of which kinds of gear are more
  beneficial.

39
Deconstructing a 6

• The argument above is weakened by the fact that
  it does not take into account the inherent
  differences between skaters who wear gear and
  those who do not. If is at least likely that
  those who wear gear may be generally more
  responsible and/or safety conscious individuals.
  The skaters who wear gear may be less likely to
  cause accidents through careless or dangerous
  behavior. It may, in fact, be their natural
  caution and repsonsibility that keeps them out of
  the emergency room rather than the gear itself.
  Also, the statistic above is based entirely on
  those who are skating in streets and parking lots
  which are relatively dangerous places to skate in
  the first place. People who are generally more
  safety conscious (and therefore more likely to
  wear gear) may choose to skate in safer areas
  such as parks or back yards.

40
Deconstructing a 6

• The statistic also goes not differentiate between
  severity of injuries. The conclusion that safety
  gear prevents severe injuries suggests that it is
  presumed that people come to the emergency room
  only with severe injuries. This is certainly not
  the case. Also, given that skating is a
  recreational activity that may be primarily
  engaged in during evenings and weekends (when
  doctors' offices are closed), skater with less
  severe injuries may be especially likely to come
  to the emergency room for treatment.

41
Deconstructing a 6

• Finally, there is absolutely no evidence provided
  that high quality (and presumably more expensive)
  gear is any more beneficial than other kinds of
  gear. For example, a simple white t-shirt may
  provide the same preventative benefit as a higher
  quality, more expensive, shirt designed only for
  skating. Before skaters are encouraged to invest
  heavily in gear, a more complete understanding of
  the benefit provided by individual pieces of gear
  would be helpful.

42
Deconstructing a 6

• The argument for safety gear based on emergency
  room statistics could provide important
  information and potentially saves lives. Before
  conclusions about the amount and kinds of
  investments that should be made in gear are
  reached, however, a more complete understanding
  of the benefits are needed. After all, a false
  confidence in ineffective gear could be just as
  dangerous as no gear at all.

43
Real Sample Arguments

• The following appeared in a local newspaper.
• People should not be misled by the advertising
  competition between Coldex and Cold-Away, both
  popular over-the-counter cold medications that
  anyone can purchase without a doctor's
  prescription. Each brand is accusing the other of
  causing some well-known, unwanted side effect
  Coldex is known to contribute to existing high
  blood pressure and Cold-Away is known to cause
  drowsiness. But the choice should be clear for
  most health-conscious people Cold-Away has been
  on the market for much longer and is used by more
  hospitals than is Coldex. Clearly, Cold-Away is
  more effective.

44
Real Sample Arguments

• A folk remedy for insomnia, the scent in
  lavender flowers, has now been proved effective.
  In a recent study, 30 volunteers with chronic
  insomnia slept each night for three weeks on
  lavender-scented pillows in a controlled room
  where their sleep was monitored. During the first
  week, volunteers continued to take their usual
  sleeping medication. They slept soundly but
  wakened feeling tired. During the second week,
  the volunteers discontinued their medication. As
  a result, they slept less soundly than the
  previous week and felt even more tired. During
  the third week, the volunteers slept longer and
  more soundly than in the previous two weeks. This
  shows that over a short period of time lavender
  cures insomnia.

45
Real Sample Arguments

• The following is a memorandum issued by the
  publisher of a newsmagazine, Newsbeat, in the
  country of Dinn.
• "Our poorest-selling magazine issues over the
  past three years were those that featured
  international news stories on their front covers.
  Over the same period, competing news-magazines
  have significantly decreased the number of cover
  stories that they devote to international news.
  Moreover, the cost of maintaining our foreign
  bureaus to report on international news is
  increasing. Therefore, we should decrease our
  emphasis on international news and refrain from
  displaying such stories on our magazine covers."