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The Age of the Isms

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Title: The Age of the Isms


1
The Age of the Isms
  • Romantacism/Liberalism/Feminism
  • Socialism/Constitutionalism/Nationalism
    Imperialism/Radicalism/Darwinism
    Industrialism/Conservatism/Monarchism
  • Republicanism/Humanitarianism

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1.)
  • The victorious powers (Britain, Austria, Prussia,
    and Russia, plus a host of lesser powers) were
    meeting in Vienna in 1814. They had several
    issues of importance
  • -Keeping newly conquered France contained, so as
    to isolate revolutionary ideas and control
    Frances military.
  • -Create a settlement that would preserve peace
    for years to come. This meant setting up a
    situation where none of these four could be
    tempted to strive for domination.

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2.)
  • France was stripped of a few colonies and some
    territory and paid no reparations. There was no
    spirit of revenge fomented in France.
  • They installed several safeguards against French
    expansion
  • Holland and Belgium were combined as a northern
    bulwark.
  • Prussia was given territory on Frances eastern
    border so as to contain the ancient French
    ambitions of gaining the Rhineland.

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3.)
  • It meant here basically what it always had since
    Westphalia in 1648 an international equilibrium
    whereby no power would gain the upper hand over
    any other, so as to preserve peace. No power
    would be allowed to dominate.
  • To insure this, each of the four divided up the
    spoils of the French Empire, gaining new
    territories and enlarging their own Empires.

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  • It almost came to war when Alexander, the czar of
    Russia, demanded a new Polish state and the
    Prussians demanded the sizeable kingdom of
    Saxony. This alarmed the British and Austrians,
    who turned to France for support. Ultimately a
    compromise was reached that satisfied all four
    powers. Additionally, France regained its place
    at the table of Great Powers and was no longer
    a pariah.

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4.)
  • The period when Napoleon escaped from exile and
    raised an army. He was defeated at Waterloo in
    Belgium.

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5.)
  • The Holy Alliance was anything but. Russia,
    Austria, and Prussia, fearing the recently
    unleashed forces of revolution, decreed to rule
    by Christian principals, as opposed to liberal
    principals. It was nothing more than an open
    declaration of repression.

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Czar Alexander
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  • Soon, revolution did rear its head again in
    Spain and Naples. The Great Powers were
    horrified. They immediately called a Congress at
    Troppau. In no time, the Austrians and French
    marched in and crushed these movements.
  • The congress system continued for years, kind of
    a forerunner to the U.N. The Great powers would
    meet and discuss major issues in the hopes of
    heading off war. For the most part it worked up
    until 1914.

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6.)
  • Klemens von Metternich was the living symbol of
    his age, which is often called the Age of
    Metternich (1815-1848). A wealthy noble, his
    well connected wife enabled him to become a
    diplomat and servant of Austria. Loyal to his
    class, he was conservative to the core and has
    come to represent the reactionary politics of the
    post-Revolution Years.

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Metternich
  • He believed liberalism had been responsible for
    30 years of war in America and Europe. He also
    believed liberals were conspiring to impose their
    beliefs on the established social order. He
    believed liberals stirred up the lower classes
    for their own political gains (rabble-rousing).
  • He was also repulsed by nationalism and
    nationalistic aspirations. Being an Austrian
    noble, its easy to see why.

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Prince Metternich
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7.)
  • Austria-Hungary, as we have seen, was created
    upon the end of the 30 Years War. The Hapsburgs,
    unable to create a German Empire, had settled for
    creating a Central European Empire through
    marriage and war. It was composed of three main
    parts

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The Austrian Empire
  • Austria Proper The Germanic homeland, Tyrol,
    Styria, Carniola, and Carinthia. 25 of the
    population.
  • Hungary the old Magyars or Huns. A fiercely
    proud group.
  • Bohemia (the Czechs) centered around Prague.
  • Also included were Italians, Poles, Slovaks,
    Romanians, Serbs, and Croats.
  • Nationalism was the spark that could blow a
    cobbled together state like this apart.

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8.)
  • Classical liberalism is not the liberalism of
    21st century America. This original form of
    liberalism meant representative government, and
    individual rights. Basically, political
    liberalism, not social liberalism.
  • Modern American liberalism generally favors
    expanded government spending to meet social
    needs, and a desire to regulate the economy. This
    is what contrasts its most sharply with
    classical liberalism, which called for
    unrestricted private enterprise, also known as
    laissez-faire.

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9.)
  • Laissez-faire means, to let people do as they
    will. Also commonly said to mean hands off. It
    was the basis of the 19th century economic
    thought. First expressed by Adam Smith, it was
    believed that unrestricted competition would mean
    better economic health for everyone, not just the
    rich. As Britain underwent the industrial
    revolution, the old mercantilist laws were thrown
    off and liberal economic thought prevailed.
  • This form of thought is best illustrated by
    Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo.

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The Dismal Science
  • Malthus argued that populations would always grow
    faster than food supplies. Thus, he predicted
    Industrialization would lead to ever-greater
    cycles of famine, starvation, and then war.
  • Ricardo used this theory to advance his iron law
    of wages. This meant that because populations
    would be high, workers would never be able to
    command more than subsistence or starvation
    wages, nor should they. To give them more would
    be interference in the natural order of things.
  • Because of the gloomy predictions of Malthus and
    Ricardo, economics has henceforth been called
    the Dismal Science.

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10.) Nationalism
  • usually evolves from a sense of cultural unity,
    especially in a sense of common language or
    territory.
  • nationalists usually seek to turn cultural unity
    to political reality, with the creation of a
    nation-state.
  • modern nationalism has its roots in the French
    Revolution and the reforms of Napoleon Bonaparte.

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  • Between 1815-1850, most people who believed in
    nationalism also embraced liberalism. This was
    because both isms hinge on a belief in the
    creativity and nobility of the people. The
    people could elect their leaders and govern
    themselves only if the people were united by
    common traditions and loyalties. Liberals and
    nationalists also agreed that a common language
    was essential.

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  • The negative aspect of nationalism was that it
    was tough to illustrate the unique qualities of a
    people without contrasting them against another
    people, an us vs. them situation. It was easy
    to corrupt this into twisted ideals of national
    superiority or a national mission (Manifest
    Destiny).

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11.)
  • Socialism is the idea that society should be
    organized or reorganized to establish equality,
    cooperation, and a sense of community.
  • The birth of socialism is seen in the French
    Revolution. Aside from the obvious class
    differences we see in it, the Revolution also
    showed that a centralized, planned economy could
    make a nation very strong.

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  • These early socialists also believed that
  • all economies should be organized and planned by
    central governments for the benefit of all.
  • they wanted to help the poor and protect them
    from the rich.
  • private property should either be controlled by
    the government or be eliminated all together.

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12.)
  • The socialist Charles Fourier believed that
    marriage and middle class life were traps for
    women, that women should be totally emancipated.
    He believed marriage nothing more than a
    financial contract between a groom and a womens
    father. He called for abolition, sexual
    liberation, and free love. As a result, feminism
    has always had a radical taint and often was
    considered a branch of socialist-communist
    thought. (Pinko radicalism).

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  • Other socialists were quite influential
  • Pierre Proudhon declared that private property
    was actually the stolen property of the worker.
  • Louis Blanc called for workers to demand
    universal suffrage and take control of the state
    peacefully.

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13.)
  • Karl Marx (1818-1883) is considered the father of
    socialism. Born of the middle class, he was an
    atheist. He was heavily influenced by the French
    socialists. However, by the age of 25 he had
    begun to develop his own theories about socialism.

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  • Basically, where earlier socialists had wanted
    the middle class to help the working class, he
    argued that the middle class (the bourgeoisie)
    and the working class (the proletariat) were
    hopelessly opposed to each other, a class
    struggle that had always existed in all
    societies. Modern industrialization had truly
    exacerbated this conflict.

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  • Just as the bourgeoisie had overcome the feudal
    aristocracy, so the proletariat would overcome
    the bourgeoisie, with the help of a few middle
    class thinkers like himself and his partner,
    Friedrich Engels. Together they published The
    Communist Manifesto, which outlined this vision,
    and concluded that the proletariat have nothing
    to lose but their chains. They have a world to
    win. Working men of all countries, Unite!

36
14.)
  • Romanticism is a movement that emerged in the
    early 19th Century. It was characterized by a
    belief in emotional exuberance, unrestrained
    imagination, and spontaneity. Romantics were the
    bohemians of the day, rejecting materialism and
    seeking spiritual fulfillment through their arts.

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  • Romantics were rebelling against two things
  • The classical tenets of the Greco-Roman world,
    which celebrated symmetry, balance, and
    proportion.
  • The Enlightenment, which sought to rationalize
    everything and reduce human emotion to a set of
    scientific principles.

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  • Some notable Romantics
  • -William Wordsworth- Ushered in the English
    Romantic movement wrote a huge body of poetry, I
    Wondered Lonely As A Cloud
  • -Samuel Taylor Coleridge- Wrote poetry along with
    Wordsworth Kubla Khan, and The Rime of the
    Ancient Mariner
  • -Sir Walter Scott- Scotsman, novelist who created
    Ivanhoe

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  • -Victor Hugo- French, The Hunchback of Notre
    Dame, and Les Miserables
  • -The Brothers Grimm- collected the ancient folk
    tales of Germany
  • -Eugene Delacroix- French, artist famous for
    dramatic scenes that stirred the emotions.
  • -Ludwig van Beethoven- German, his music was
    emotional and moving.

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16.)
  • Greece had been under the domination of the
    Ottoman Turks since the fall of Constantinople in
    1453. United by their national language, history,
    and Orthodox religion, the Greeks were a perfect
    example of the new nationalism. In 1821 they
    revolted, led by Alexander Ypsilanti. At first
    the Great Powers were horrified by yet another
    revolution against the established way of things.
    However, by 1827, European and American opinion
    had turned. Britain, France, and Russia forced
    the Ottomans to accept a treaty, and destroyed a
    Turkish fleet. The three powers declared Greek
    independence in 1830, inspiring nationalism
    everywhere. Greece had been a very special case,
    however.

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Ottoman Empire in 1820
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17.)
  • The British aristocracy (the gentry or
    "squirearchy") had been firmly entrenched since
    1688. Their power had grown during the 18th
    century. It was they who had enclosed lands and
    made profits. Even though they ruled rather
    benevolently, Britain was not truly democratic at
    all. Thus, the Revolution had made them extremely
    nervous and protective of their interests. Known
    politically as Tories, they repressed any sign of
    liberalism wherever possible.

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The Squirearchy
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18.)
  • The Corn Laws are the classic example of class
    interests. During the Napoleonic Wars, Britain
    had been unable to import grain, leading to
    shortages and high prices. The aristocracy had
    put much of their land to grain cultivation, and
    as a result reaped huge profits.

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  • With Napoleon defeated, it seemed natural that
    foreign grain would once again be imported and
    the prices drop. However, the gentry (which
    controlled the House of Lords and some of the
    Commons) pushed through changes to the Corn Laws,
    which basically kept foreign grain out. They
    artificially manipulated the price of bread for
    their own selfish interests. The Corn Laws became
    a symbol of aristocratic repression.

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19.)
  • The public was outraged, especially the urban
    workers ,who depended on bread. Together with
    radical intellectuals, the workers campaigned to
    reform the House of Commons. The Tory government
    responded by limiting freedoms. In Manchester, a
    peaceful workers rally was broken up by armed
    cavalry, and several innocents were killed. The
    public scornfully called this the "Peterloo"
    massacre. This event was the turning point in the
    struggle, as public opinion began to turn against
    the Tories somewhat.

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The Anti-Corn Law League
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Peterloo
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20.)
  • It was the upper middle classes that really
    pushed for reform. Wealthy though they were,
    these entrepreneurs, capitalists, and merchants
    had no noble titles. Thus, they had no real say
    in the Tory government. In the 1820's they began
    to push hard for reform, along with the rest of
    the middle classes.

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21.)
  • By 1832, the Whig party had pushed the king to
    eliminate rotten boroughs. A rotten borough is
    when a MP might represent a small village, while
    huge new industrial districts had equal or lesser
    representation. Often the MPs bought and sold
    these seats. As representation became more equal,
    the Tory grip on government loosened. The Reform
    Bill of 1832 was the first step toward a liberal
    government.

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22.)
  • The Chartists, so called because they
    championed the Peoples Charter of 1838, wanted
    universal male suffrage. They petitioned
    Parliament three times for the voter but were
    denied three times.
  • The Anti-Corn Law League was a middle class
    radical group. They wanted the Corn Laws
    repealed. When the Irish Potato famine struck and
    food prices rose in England, Parliament had no
    choice but to repeal the Corn Laws. Thereafter,
    free trade became the sacred dogma of Britain.

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23.)
  • The potato had become the main staple of Irish
    diets since it was introduced in the 1600 and
    1700's. Requiring little land and money to plant,
    yet rich in nutrition, the Irish depended on it.
    The potatoes were blighted in 1845,46, 48, and
    51. The result was disaster. A million died,
    while over a million people fled to England,
    Canada, America, and Australia.

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  • The real tragedy was that most of the misery was
    avoidable. Ireland had been ruled as a conquered
    province since the days of Cromwell and the
    Battle of the Boyne. The Irish peasants rented
    land from mainly British, Protestant landlords.
    These landlords were usually absentee landlords.
    When the crop failed and they couldn't make rent,
    they were tossed out and their homes destroyed.
    They took to the roads. The British government
    didn't want to give them food for fear of
    depressing grain prices. By the time they did
    move to help, hundreds of thousands were dead.

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24.)
  • Louis XVIII ruled from 1814 to 1824. His
    successor, Charles X, was truly of a medieval
    mindset when it came to governance. It was almost
    as if he refused to acknowledge that the
    Revolution had even happened. Wanting to
    re-establish the Old Order, in 1830 he attempted
    to strip the middle class of the right to vote.
    Paris boiled over in rage and revolt, and after
    "three glorious days", Charles fled. His cousin,
    Louis Philippe, accepted the throne.
  • His acceptance of the throne hadn't really
    changed much. He made some symbolic concessions,
    but in truth, France remained in the hands of a
    narrow elite class.

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25.)
  • In 1848 Europe saw a revival of the Revolutionary
    impulse. Only Britain and Russia were spared.
    France, Austria, and Prussia exploded.
  • It began in France. Louis Philippe's 18 years of
    rule were characterized by inaction. He had made
    no attempt to broaden the right to vote. In Feb.
    of 1848 riots broke out in Paris Louis was
    forced to abdicate. The people would tolerate no
    more monarchy, however, and a provisional
    republic was proclaimed.

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  • What happened next illustrates the conflicting
    forces of the industrial age. The moderate middle
    class revolutionaries wanted male suffrage. The
    radical socialists, however, wanted much more.
    Attempting to appease them, the bourgeoisie
    created "workshops", made work to give relief
    to the poor. As the socialists gained more power
    in Paris, the rest of the country began to fear
    this new revolution. When they tried to close the
    workshops, class warfare erupted in the streets.
    After such bloodshed, the French people again
    craved stability. At the end of 1848 they elected
    Louis Napoleon, nephew of Bonaparte. The 1848
    revolution in France had been a failure.

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Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III)
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26.)
  • The French revolts excited liberals and
    intellectual across Europe. The Hungarians
    demanded autonomy and male suffrage. When the
    Habsburgs hesitated. the students of Vienna
    filled the streets in revolts, and the Emperor
    fled, promising reforms. Seemingly victorious,
    this new coalition would soon splinter. The other
    peoples of the Empire didn't care about Hungarian
    nationalism. Additionally, the peasants didn't
    have the same goals as the urban workers. As
    these groups turned on each other, the
    conservative forces rallied around the
    Archduchess Sophia.

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27.)
  • Deeply ashamed of her brother- in- law Ferdinand,
    she insisted that he abdicate and that her young
    son Francis Joseph assume the throne. Soon, the
    collective power of the nobility, the army, and
    the Church, had crushed revolutionary forces
    throughout the Empire. As in France, this
    uprising had failed.

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28.)
  • ln Prussia, the situation had a similar
    beginning. Under pressure from working class
    leaders, liberal intellectuals, and students, the
    Kaiser caved in and declared that Prussia would
    have a liberal constitution.
  • The problem in Prussia was similar. The
    socialists and radical had a long list of
    demands, while many Prussians simply wanted a
    unified German state, with or without Austria.
    These leaders convened the "Frankfurt Assembly.
    They soon launched a war against Denmark over the
    provinces of Schleswig and Holstein.

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  • While they obsessed over this conflict, Frederick
    William IV reasserted his power. Though he was
    "elected" by the Frankfurt Assembly, the truth
    was that he ruled with or without them. To prove
    this he granted a very limited constitution. When
    all was said and done, revolutionary ideals had
    failed in Prussia. Furthermore, German
    unification seemed as far away as ever before.
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