Module 3 Mitigation Options

1
Module 3Mitigation Options

• General considerations
• Industry
• Buildings
• Transport
• Energy supply
• Solid waste and wastewater
• Land-use, land-use change and forestry
• Agriculture
• Note geological sequestration is not covered but
  is a potential longer-term mitigation option.

2
Module 3a

• General Considerations

3
Technology Innovations Neededto Mitigate CO2
Emissions

• More efficient technologies for energy conversion
  and utilization in all end-use sectors
  (transportation, industry, buildings,
  agriculture power generation)
• New or improved technologies for utilizing
  alternative energy sources with lower or no GHG
  emissions (such as natural gas and renewables)
• Technologies for CO2 capture and storage (for
  large-scale industrial processes like electric
  power generation and fuels production)

4
Technology Policies Have Reduced theCost of
GHG-Friendly Energy Systems
5
Facilitating Energy Efficiency

• New investments in power, industry, transport and
  building infrastructure can be substantially more
  efficient than existing stock economic growth is
  powering a rapid increase in these sectors, and
  associated emissions.

• Almost all countries exhibit declining energy
  intensity trends for the economic sectors most
  countries have some initiatives to promote energy
  efficiency in these sectors
• Technology integration, support, and financing
  risks are high
• Adoption is driven by quality and productivity
  increases

Picture Courtesy of Emerson Process Management
6
Module 3b

• Industry

7
Industry Primary Energy Demand by Region

• Since 1980, industrial energy demand has
  stagnated in industrialized countries, but
  continues to grow rapidly in many developing
  countries, especially in Asia.

Source IPCC, WGIII, 2002
8
Industry Emissions Contribution

• Globally, 50 of industry energy consumption made
  up by
• Iron steel
• Chemicals
• Petroleum refining
• Pulp paper
• Cement
• Huge variations between countries
• Small industries important in many developing
  countries.

9
Industry

• Unique opportunities for reducing GHGs because
  process change with energy efficiency benefits
  often driven by economic and organizational
  considerations.
• Shortage of capital is a problem in many cases,
  but gradual improvement in efficiency is likely
  as investment takes place and new plants are
  built.
• Nature of industrial decision-making implies that
  energy-cost savings may either be dominant or
  secondary in specific technical actions.
• Potential for large efficiency gains due to rapid
  stock turnover expected in developing countries.

10
Industry Energy Intensity in Pulp and Paper
Industry

• Energy intensity (energy use per unit of value
  added) has been reducing over the past two
  decades in many industries, including iron and
  steel and pulp and paper.

Source IPCC, WGIII, 2002
11
Industry Technical Options

• Nature of decision-making in industry demands two
  classes of options
• Those for which energy cost savings are the
  dominant decision making criteria
  --energy-cost-sensitive
• Those for which broader criteria such as overall
  production cost and product quality are more
  important non energy-cost-sensitive

12
Industry Energy-cost-sensitive options

• Measures for existing processes
• Housekeeping, equipment maintenance, and energy
  accounting
• Energy management systems
• Motor drive system improvements
• Improved steam production and management
• Industrial cogeneration
• Heat recovery
• Correct dimensioning of motors and mechanical
  equipment
• Adoption of efficient electric motors, pumps,
  fans, compressors, and boilers.
• Fuel switching

13
Industry Non Energy-cost-sensitive Options

• Major process modifications, for example
• improvements to electric arc furnaces and
  revamping open-hearth furnaces (steel)
• installing improved aluminum smelters, improved
  ethylene cracking, and conversion from semi-dry
  to dry process or installation of pre-calcination
  (cement)
• Use of non-carbonated materials for cement
  clinker production additives to reduce clinker
  production.
• Installation of new production capacity
• More efficient use of materials

14
Industry Non CO2 Greenhouse Gases

• Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Industrial Processes
  
• PFC Emissions from Aluminium Production
• PFCs and Other Substances Used in Semiconductor
  Production
• HFC-23 Emissions from HCFC-22 Production
• Emissions of SF6 from the Production, Use and
  Decommissioning of Gas Insulated Switchgear
• Emissions of SF6 from Magnesium Production and
  Casting

15
Industry Mitigation Measures

• Research, development, and commercial
  demonstration of new technologies and processes
• Tax incentives for energy efficiency, fuel
  switching, and reduction in GHG emissions
• Removal of market barriers
• Government procurement programs
• Emission and efficiency standards
• Voluntary agreements

16
Module 3c

• Buildings (Residential and Commercial Sector)

17
Buildings Primary Energy Growth by Sector

• Space heating is the dominant energy end-use in
  temperate areas, space-cooling is more important
  in tropical areas.
• Developed countries account for the vast majority
  of buildings-related CO2 emissions, but the bulk
  of the growth in the past two decades was in
  developing countries.

18
Buildings Technical Options

• Building Equipment
• energy efficient space and heating (heat pumps,
  CHP)
• efficient lighting, air conditioners,
  refrigerators, and motors
• efficient cook stoves, household appliances, and
  electrical equipment
• efficient building energy management and
  maintenance
• Building Thermal Integrity
• improved insulation and sealing
• energy-efficient windows
• proper building orientation
• Using Solar Energy
• active and passive heating and cooling
  climate-sensitive design
• effective use of natural light (daylighting)

Picture NREL
19
Buildings Mitigation Measures

• Information programs
• Labelling
• Demonstration projects
• Market based programs
• incentives to consumers for new energy-efficient
  products (in many situations, the fate of less
  efficient second-hand equipment must be
  considered).
• energy service companies
• energy-efficient product development incentives
  for manufacturers
• government or large-customer procurement for
  energy-efficient products
• voluntary initiatives by industry
• Regulatory measures
• mandated energy-efficiency performance standards,
  increasingly stringent over time
• mandated appliance efficiency standards and
  efficiency labeling

20
Module 3d

• Transport

21
Transport Projected GHG Emissions by Mode
Source IEA, World Energy Outlook, 2002
22
Background.

• The transport sector is perhaps the biggest
  challenge for GHG mitigation.
• GHG emissions from the Transport sector are
  growing more rapidly than any other sector.
• Developing country transport emissions are
  growing faster than in other regions of the
  world.
• Technical and fuel switching solutions for GHG
  mitigation are particularly challenging in the
  transport sector.

23
Transport Technical Options

• Fuel Efficiency Improvements for Vehicles
• Changes in vehicle and engine design (e.g.
  hybrids)
• Alternative Fuel Sources
• hydrogen or electricity from renewable power
• biomass fuels, CNG, LPG, etc.
• fuel cell technology
• Infrastructure and System Changes
• traffic and fleet management systems
• mass transportation systems and improved land-use
  planning.
• modal shifts
• Transport Demand Management
• Reducing travel demand (e.g. through land use
  changes, telecommunications, etc.)

24
Transport Mitigation Measures

• Market-based Instruments
• increase in fuel tax
• incentives for mass transport systems
• fiscal incentives and subsides for alternative
  fuels and vehicles
• incentives through vehicle taxes and license fees
  for more efficient vehicles
• Regulatory Instruments
• fuel economy standards
• vehicle design or alternative fuel mandates
• Direct Investment by Governments

25
Transport Starting Questions for Analysis

• Overall how can societal preferences be matched
  with transport options to lower GHG emissions?
• Demand forecasting how much travel or freight
  movement is expected?
• Mode choice what mix of transport modes will be
  used to provide passenger and freight services?
• Vehicle stock analysis what is the impact of
  changing technology (fuel economy, fuel type,
  emission controls) on fuel use and emissions?
• Logistics management how can activities be
  reorganized to reduce transport use?
• Transport management how should infrastructure
  and vehicle flow be managed to reduce congestion
  or improve efficiency?
• Transport planning what investments are needed
  to meet growing demand and improve efficiency?

26
Emissions per Passenger-Km by Mode in Developing
Countries
Source Pew Center, 2002
27
Module 3e

• Energy Supply

28
Energy Supply Conventional

• The conventional energy supply system consists of
  the following sectors
• Oil
• Gas
• Coal
• Nuclear materials
• Electric power
• Biomass
• While the electric power sector is often the
  largest contributor to GHG emissions, all
  elements of the fuel cycle need to be considered
  when assessing the mitigation potential in this
  sector.

29
Energy Supply Fuel Cycle Emissions from Oil
Sector
Sector/Fuel Source of
Cycle Stage Emissions CO2 CH4 CO NOx
Oil Sector
Production Gas Flaring x x
Transport Spills x
Refining Distillation x x x x
Fractionation
Spills
Storage Leaks
Combustion
30
Energy Supply Fuel Cycle Emissions from Gas and
Coal Sectors
Sector/Fuel Source of
Cycle Stage Emissions CO2 CH4 CO NOx
Gas Sector
Production Gas Flaring x
Transport Pipeline Leaks x
Liquefaction/ Regasification Leaks x
Coal Sector
Mining Coal bed methane x
Transport
Cleaning x x x
31
Energy Supply Fuel Cycle Emissions from Nuclear
Materials and Electric Power Sectors
Sector/Fuel Source of
Cycle Stage Emissions CO2 CH4 CO NOx
Nuclear Materials Sector
Mining X
Processing X X X X
Electric Power Sector
Generation FuelCombustion X X X X
Hydro Power Inundation X X
32
Energy Supply Sector Technical Options

• Advanced conversion technologies
• advanced pulverized coal combustion
• fluidized bed combustion (atmospheric and
  pressurized)
• coal gasification and combined cycle technology
• combined heat and power systems
• cogeneration
• fuel cells/hydrogen
• Synthetic fuels from fossil resources w/CO2
  sequestration in situ.
• Switching to lower carbon fossil fuels and
  renewable energy
• hydropower
• wind energy
• biomass
• geothermal
• photovoltaics (PV)
• solar thermal
• Power station rehabilitation
• Reduction of losses in transmission and
  distribution of electricity and fuels
• Improved fuel production and transport
• recovery of coal mine methane

Picture NREL
33
Energy Supply Sector Mitigation Measures

• Pure market-based instruments
• GHG and energy taxes and subsidies
• full social cost pricing of energy services
• Strict command-and-control regulation
• specifying the use of specific fuels
• performance and emission standards
• Hybrid measures
• tradable emission permits
• (renewable) portfolio standards, with tradable
  credits
• Voluntary agreements and actions by industry
• Research, development, and demonstration
  activities
• Removal of institutional barriers

34
Energy Supply Technological and Efficiency
Improvements in Power Supply Sector

• Large efficiency gains can be achieved by
  replacing the separate production of heat and
  power with combined heat and power (CHP)
  technologies.

35
Energy Supply Renewable Energy Technologies

• Solar
• Photovoltaics - Flat Plate
• Photovoltaics - Concentrator
• Solar Thermal Parabolic Trough
• Solar Thermal Dish/Stirling
• Solar Thermal Central Receiver
• Solar Ponds
• Hydropower
• Conventional
• Pumped Storage
• Micro-hydro
• Ocean
• Tidal Energy
• Thermal Energy Conversion

• Wind
• Horizontal Axis Turbine
• Vertical Axis Turbine
• Biomass
• Direct Combustion
• Gasification/Pyrolysis
• Anaerobic Digestion
• Geothermal
• Dry Steam
• Flash Steam
• Binary Cycle
• Heat Pump
• Direct Use

36
Energy Supply Solar Photovoltaics

• Solar panels using silicon PV conversion have
  efficiencies in excess of 15 percent, and thin
  film modules are typically 10 percent.
• PV panels are available in sizes from a few watts
  to 300 watts and produce DC electricity in the
  range of 12 to 60 volts, and can be used for
  applications such as
• charging electric lanterns and laptop computers
  (4 - 6 watts)
• packaged systems (20 - 100 watts) for off-grid
  residential lighting and entertainment (radio/
  cassette, TV/VCR) and
• grid-connected power (hundreds of kilowatts to a
  megawatt or more).
• Current costs make solar PVs prohibitive in most
  situations.
• Can be attractive in niche applications,
  especially for off-grid electrification.
• Good prospects for further increases in
  efficiency and reductions in costs.

37
Energy Supply Changes in Wind Electricity
Generation Costs in Denmark

• Wind power accounts for 0.3 of global installed
  generation capacity.
• It has increased by an average of 25 annually in
  recent years.
• The cost of wind has fallen dramatically,
  following a classic learning curve.

38
Energy Supply Biomass

• For mitigation, focus should be on renewable
  biomass, which has no net CO2 emissions.
• Modern conversion of biomass into electricity,
  liquid and gaseous fuels shows great promise.
• In addition, co-firing 10-15 biomass with coal
  can reduce GHG emissions

In developing countries, biomass is a major
source of energy services for the poor.
Source IEA
39
Energy Supply Typical Least Cost-Supply Staircase
40
Module 3f

• Solid Waste and Wastewater

41
Solid Waste and Wastewater Introduction

• Methane (CH4) is emitted during the anaerobic
  decomposition of the organic content of solid
  waste and wastewater.
• There are large uncertainties in emissions
  estimates, due to the lack of information about
  the waste management practices employed in
  different countries, the portion of organic
  wastes that decompose anaerobically and the
  extent to which these wastes will ultimately
  decompose.
• About 2040 Mt CH4 (110230 Mt C), or about 10
  of global CH4 emissions from human-related
  sources, are emitted from landfills and open
  dumps annually.
• Another 30-40 Mt CH4 (170230 Mt C) annual
  emissions are from domestic and industrial
  wastewater disposal.
• It is important to remember that the Materials
  life-cycle has both energy and non-energy related
  emissions.

42
Solid Waste GHG Sources and Sinks associated
with Materials Life-Cycle
Source U.S. EPA
43
Technical Options

• Source Reduction
• Recycling
• Composting
• Incineration (including off-set for electricity
  generation)
• Avoidance/waste prevention
• Methane Recovery from Solid-waste Disposal
• Solid waste disposal facilities (including
  off-sets for electricity generation and
  co-generation gas recovery)
• Methane Recovery and/or Reduction from Wastewater
• Wastewater treatment plants (including off-sets
  for electricity generation and co-generation gas
  recovery)

Landfill Gas Recovery.Picture University of
Tennessee
44
Measures

• Regulatory standards for waste disposal and
  wastewater management
• Provision of market incentives for improved waste
  management and recovery of methane
• Voluntary program to encourage adoption of
  technical options

45
Barriers to Methane Recovery

• Lack of Information Lack of awareness of
  relative costs and effectiveness of alternative
  technical options, lack of experience with
  low-cost recently developed anaerobic processes
• Economics Equipment and infrastructure may not
  be readily affordable.
• State of Current Landfills Existing waste
  disposal "system" may actually be an open dump or
  an effluent stream with no treatment and no
  capital or operating expenses. It is less
  economical to recover CH4 from smaller dumps and
  landfills.
• Conflicting Interests Different agencies may be
  responsible for energy generation, compost
  supply, and waste management. CH4 recovery and
  use can introduce new actors into the waste
  disposal process, potentially disturbing the
  current balance of economic and political power
  in the community.

46
Module 3g

• LULUCF Land-use, land-use change and forestry

47
Key LULUCF Sectors

• 1. Forestry
• 2. Rangelands and Grasslands
• 3. Agriculture

48
Role of LULUCF Sectors in Global GHG Emissions

• Global Emissions per year (early 1990's)
• Fossil fuels Landuse sectors
• Carbon Emissions (GtC) 6.0 - 0.5 1.6 - 0.4
• Methane (Tg) 100 400
• Other GHG (Anthropogenic) Significant but lt 5
  
• Net Sequestration (GtC) 0 0.7 - 0.2
• Climate change impacts (2CO2)
• Projections show an increase of forest area from
  8 - 13 of the current 82.7 Mi km2, and mixed
  impacts on drylands and agricultural areas in
  different regions of the world

49
Key Steps in LULUCF Mitigation Assessment

1. Identification and categorization of the
   mitigation options appropriate for carbon
   sequestration.
2. Assessment of the current and future land area
   available for mitigation options.
3. Assessment of the current and future demand for
   products and for land.
4. Determination of the land area and product
   scenarios by mitigation option.
5. Estimation of the C-sequestration per ha. for
   major available land classes, by mitigation
   option.
6. Estimation of unit costs and benefits.
7. Evaluation of cost-effectiveness indicators.
8. Development of future carbon sequestration and
   cost scenarios.
9. Exploration of policies, institutional
   arrangements and incentives necessary for the
   implementation of mitigation options.
10. Estimation of the national macro-economic effects
    of these scenarios.

50
Potential Area Available for Mitigation in Select
Countries (million ha)
51
Forestry Mitigation Options

• 1. Reducing GHG emissions through
• conservation and protection
• efficiency improvements
• fossil fuel substitution
• 2. Sequestering carbon through
• Increased forest area
• increased vegetation cover
• increased carbon storage in soils
• conversion of biomass to long-term products

52
Drylands Mitigation Options

• Rangelands and Grasslands
• Reduction of Emissions
• Improved range and fire management
• Improved animal husbandry
• Biomass replenishment
• Carbon Sequestration
• Biomass replenishment
• Enhanced soil carbon storage

53
Module 3h

• Agriculture

54
Agriculture Mitigation Options

• 1. Emission Reduction through improved
• Rice cultivation
• Animal husbandry
• Fertilizer application
• Cultivation methods
• 2. Carbon Sequestration through
• Agro-forestry
• Agricultural tree crops
• Soil carbon storage
• No till cropping

55
Agricultural Sector Mitigation Assessment

• Included Gases and Activities
• CH4 from Livestock
• Enteric Fermentation (digestive)
• Manure Management
• CH4 from Rice Cultivation
• N2O from Disturbance of Agricultural Soils
• Note Open Biomass burning of agricultural waste
  is covered under Land-use Change and Forestry

56
Main Sources of Emissions from AgricultureCH4
Emissions from Livestock and Manure

• Enteric Fermentation
• CH4 emitted from normal digestive processes
• Main source mostly ruminant animals, e.g. cattle
  and sheep, non-ruminants e.g. horses and pigs
• Main factors influencing emissions
• type of digestive system
• age
• weight
• quality and
• quantity of feed intake

57
Main Sources of Emissions from AgricultureCH4
Emissions from Livestock and Manure

• 2. Manure from livestock
• CH4 is emitted from anaerobic decomposition of
  organic matter, mostly slurry/liquid manure
• Main factors are
• manure management system
• temperature
• quantity of manure produced

58
Baseline Emissions from AgricultureCH4 Emissions
from Livestock and Manure

• Proposed approach
• Identify the target animal types for mitigation
• Estimate animal population by animal types
• Select emission factor per head for each animal
  type
• Tier 1 countries Select from standard default
  values
• Tier 2 countries Develop emission factors based
  on country specific conditions
• Multiply animal population by emission factor to
  obtain baseline emission levels

59
Baseline Emissions from AgricultureCH4 Emissions
from Livestock and Manure

• Cattle categories
• Dairy cattle Milk producing cows for commercial
  exchange and calves as well as heifers being kept
  for future diary production
• Non-dairy cattle All non-diary cattle, including
  cattle for beef production, draft and breeding
  animals

60
Baseline Emissions from AgricultureCH4 Emissions
Factors for Enteric Fermentation
61
Baseline Emissions from AgricultureCH4 Emission
Factors for Manure Management
62
Baseline Emissions from AgricultureCH4 Emission
Factors for Manure Management
63
Emissions from AgricultureCH4 Emissions from
Livestock and Manure

• Tier 1 Method
• Perform for each animal type for each climatic
  region if applicable
• Annual Emissions PopEFenteric EFmanure
• Note The term Tier 2 applies to those countries
  with large numbers of livestock with substantial
  contribution to national emissions.

64
Emissions from AgricultureCH4 Emissions from
Livestock and Manure

• Tier 2 Recommended Method
• Detailed animal types
• Detailed animal and feed characteristics
• Estimate feed intake
• Detailed manure management data and country
  specific emission factors

65
Emissions from AgricultureCH4 Emissions from
Livestock and ManureRecommended representative
cattle types for Tier 2
66
Baseline Emissions from AgricultureCH4 Emissions
from Livestock and Manure

• Tier 2 Method for Enteric Fermentation (by
  animal type)
• Emissions (kg CH4/yr) (GE Ym 365
  days/yr)/(55.65 MJ/kg CH4)
• where
• GE daily gross energy intake (MJ/day)
• Ym methane conversion rate (default 0.06)
• GE (NEm NEf NEl NEd NEp)/(NE/DE)
  (NEg/(NEg/DE) (100/DE)
• where
• NE Net Energy DE Digestive Energy

67
Baseline Emissions from AgricultureCH4 Emissions
from Livestock and Manure

• Tier 2 Method for Manure Management (by animal
  type)
• Emissions (kg CH4/yr) VS 365 days/yr B0
  0.67 kg CH4/m3 ?jk(MCFjk) MSjk)
• Where
• VS daily volatile solids excreted (kg/day)
• B0 maximum methane producing capacity for
  manure (m3 CH4/kg VS)
• MCF methane conversion factor
• MS fraction of animal types manure handled
• jk manure management system j in climate k

68
Baseline Emissions from AgricultureCH4 Emissions
from Flooded Rice Fields

• Overview
• - Decomposition of organic material in flooded
  rice fields produces CH4.
• - CH4 escapes to the atmosphere primarily by
  diffusive transport through rice plants.
• - Flux rates are highly variable, both spatially
  and temporally -- depending on water management,
  soil temperature, soil type and cultivation
  practices.
• - The method is revised in the Revised 1996 IPCC
  Guidelines

69
Emissions from AgricultureCH4 Emissions from
Flooded Rice Fields

• Definitions
• - Growing season length The average (for the
  country or subcategory) length of time in days,
  from seeding or transplanting until harvest
• - Continuously flooded Fields inundated for the
  duration of the growing season
• - Intermittently flooded Inundated part of the
  time
• - Dry (upland) Fields seldom flooded during the
  growing season
• - Harvested area Accounts for multiple cropping
  per year harvested areagtcultivated area.

70
Estimating Emissions from AgricultureCH4
Emissions from Flooded Rice Fields

• Apply to each water management regime
• Emissions (Gg CH4) Harvested Area (Mha/yr)
• x Growing season length (days)
• x Emission Factor (kg Ch4/ha/day)
• Emission factors depend on water management and
  average growing season temperature

71
Emissions from AgricultureCH4 Emissions from
Flooded Rice Fields

• CH4 Emissions ?i Harvested Area x SFi x CFi x
  EFi
• Where
• SFi scaling factor for each water management
  system i.
• CFi Correction factor for organic amendments
  applied in each water management system i.
• EF Seasonally integrated emission factor for
  continuously flooded rice without organic
  amendments

72
Emissions from AgricultureEmissions from
Agricultural Soils

• Overview
• Agricultural soils may emit or sequester N2O, CO2
  and CH4
• Fluxes are affected by a wide variety of natural
  and management processes, the effects of which
  are not clearly understood
• The methodology currently only includes N2O
• The methodology is significantly revised in the
  Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines

73
Emissions from AgricultureEmissions from
Agricultural Soils

• Recommended Methodology
• N2O Emissions (103 tN/yr)
  ?i(Fmn Fon Fbnf) x Ci x 44/28)
• Where
• i low, medium, high
• Fmn amount of mineral fertilizer applied
• F amount of organic material (animal manure and
  crop residues) applied
• Fbnf amount of biological N-fixation added
• C Emission coefficient

74
Emissions from AgricultureEmissions from
Agricultural Soils

• Ranges of Emission Coefficients for N2O from
  Agricultural Soils Tg (N2O-N)
• Emission type Expert Group Alternative Recent
• Recommendations Calculations2 Analyses3
  
• 
  19931
  
• Low 0.0005 0.0014 0.0025
• Medium 0.0036 0.0034 0.0125
• High 0.039 0.037 0.0225
• Footnotes
• 1 Values were suggested by an expert group during
  the Amersfoot workshop (Bouwman and Mosier,
  1993). They are not representative of global
  figures because they are based on mineral
  fertilizer use for each type.
• 2 In response to comments on the draft
  Guidelines, a range of coefficients was
  calculated based on figures in Table 5-9 of the
  OECD/OCDE (1991) report.
• 3 Provided by Mosier (1994) based on detailed
  analysis of currently available measurement data.
  In these Guidelines, these are the recommended
  coefficients.
  
  

75
Emissions from AgricultureEmissions from
Agricultural Soils

• Revisions in the Revised 1996 Guidelines
• Revised methodology takes into account both
  direct and indirect emissions of N2O and includes
  additional sources of N that are applied,
  deposited or made available in the soil.

76
Possible Topics for Discussion

• How can an assessment team ensure analytical
  consistency across many different sectors?
• What is the best level of detail for an analysis
  in each sector?
• How can data limitations be addressed?