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IMS3230 Information Systems Development Practices

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Title: IMS3230 Information Systems Development Practices


1
IMS3230 - Information Systems Development
Practices
Soft Systems Methodology (SSM)
2
the systems approach
  • general systems theory (e.g. Bertalanffy 1968)
  • to understand the nature of large and complex
    systems
  • a system is a set of interrelated elements, with
    inputs and outputs, and with a set of processes
    which convert inputs into outputs
  • a system has a boundary and an environment with
    which it interacts
  • a system has a purpose, and its elements interact
    to achieve this
  • systems relate to each other, and consist of
    subsystems
  • e.g. an inventory system

3
the systems approach
  • systems have emergent properties
  • the whole is greater than the sum of its parts
  • need to develop information systems for the
    organisation as a whole, not for isolated
    functions
  • the interconnectedness of systems
  • understand the context of information systems
  • avoid the reductionism of scientific analysis
  • decomposition of complex structures may distort
    our understanding as elements may react
    differently when examined individually

4
the systems approach
  • organisational (human activity) systems are not
    predictable
  • peoples behaviour and interpretations
  • organisations are open systems, interacting with
    their environment
  • e.g. competitors, government policies,
    customers, suppliers
  • organisations are complex systems
  • need people with a range of expertise and
    experience to develop and implement information
    systems

5
the systems approach
  • the technological aspects are closed and
    predictable
  • the human aspects are open and
    non- deterministic
  • methodologies must take into account the
    importance and complexity of the human element
  • computer solutions are not always
    appropriate
  • multiple viewpoints and solutions which is
    best?
  • may require technological and also attitudinal,
    structural, environmental changes

6
hard vs soft systems thinking
  • Checkland (1981)
  • soft systems approaches
  • organisations are complex, with problems which
    are fuzzy, ill-defined, not well-structured,
    and where multiple points of view exist
  • hard systems approaches
  • focus on the certain and precise in situations
    e.g. structured approaches, SSADM
  • assume there is, and consider, only one point of
    view

7
Soft Systems Methodology
  • developed at Lancaster University from the early
    1970s by Peter Checkland as part of an action
    research program
  • Checkland wanted to adapt the ideas of systems
    theory to form a practical methodology
  • a study of methods for application in a
    particular situation
  • not a development methodology a methodology to
    identify changes
  • human problem and process oriented, not technique
    oriented
  • a number of models built representing different
    viewpoints
  • exploration of problem situations to decide on
    action for desirable changes

8
hard systems thinking
  • systems exist in the real world and can be
    engineered
  • an objective, correct view exists
  • decomposition of systems into parts for
    examination and understanding scientific method
  • focus on how to do things, assumes what to do
    is already clear
  • the system's objectives can be defined in
    advance
  • alternative means of achieving them can be
    modelled
  • the most desirable is selected
  • deterministic, goal-seeking seek optimum
    choice from competing alternative solutions

9
soft systems thinking
  • systems do not exist as such, but are an abstract
    concept representing a way of seeing and
    understanding the real world a holon e.g. the
    education system
  • the system is not some part of the real world
    but is the organised process of enquiry itself
  • subjective, depending on background, experience,
    beliefs
  • need to understand and explore the whole and its
    context
  • SSM is a system of enquiry and has to be
    participative
  • the role of the SSM expert is to help the
    people in the problem situation carry out their
    own study
  • models are not representations of real world
    activity but are constructed in order to help
    debate it

10
Soft Systems Methodology
  • fuzzy, ill-structured, complex (i.e. soft)
    problems are common in organisations human
    activity systems
  • the unpredictable nature of human activity
    systems
  • data, processes are relatively easy to model,
    but
  • to understand organisations, we need to include
    people in the models
  • the people involved may have different and
    conflicting objectives, perceptions,
    and attitudes
  • we need to address the soft aspects of
    problems, not just the hard aspects, to achieve
    a better understanding

11
The development of SSM action research
  • Action research
  • to investigate and refine theoretical knowledge
    by active and reflective participation in a
    real-world situation not under the control of the
    researcher vs e.g. laboratory experiments
  • client-centred, contextual
  • goals negotiated with members of the organisation
  • not fact-finding, but a learning process
  • each social context is unique, no law-like
    generalisations about organisations vs the
    scientific method
  • insights rather than cause / effect relationships

12
Soft Systems Methodology
  • humans attribute meaning to their experiences and
    observations
  • we form intentions, based on how we interpret our
    situation, and
  • take purposeful action in response to our
    experience of the world the experience / action
    cycle learning
  • SSM the focus is on an organised set of
    principles (methodology) which guide action in
    trying to manage (in the broad sense)
    real-world problem situations
  • Checkland and Scholes (1990), p. 5
  • the what to do and the how to do it are both
    tackled
  • (problem situation, not a problem)

13
Soft Systems Methodology
  • Checkland and Scholes (1990) p. 6
  • the basic shape of the approach is to formulate
    some models which it is hoped will be relevant to
    the real-world situation, and use them by setting
    them against perceptions of the real world in a
    process of comparison. That comparison could then
    initiate debate leading to a decision to take
    purposeful action to improve the part of real
    life which is under scrutiny
  • see Fig 1.3 p. 7

14
Soft Systems Methodology
  • Checkland and Scholes (1990), pp 286 - 287
  • no automatic assumption the world is systemic
    conscious choice to take a part of the world as a
    system to be engineered
  • distinguish between unreflecting involvement in
    the everyday world and conscious systems thinking
    about the real world the SSM user is conscious
    of moving from one world to another many times
  • in systems thinking holons are constructed
    purposeful human activity systems embodying
    emergent properties, layered structure, processes
    of communication and control
  • holons are used to enquire into the real world in
    order to articulate a debate or dialogue intended
    to define changes deemed desirable and feasible

15
Soft Systems Methodology
  • the situation is a product of a particular
    history
  • the improvers are the users of SSM
  • the focus is the search for one (or more) world
    view a set of assumptions about reality
  • the world view is extracted from the problem
    situation through debate on the purpose of the
    organisation
  • the world view forms the basis for describing
    system requirements
  • implemented changes will change the nature of the
    problem situation as perceived continuous cycle
    of learning

16
Evolution of SSM
  • Two modes
  • mode 1 Checkland (1981)
  • 7 stage model, is the most well-known version
  • mode 2 Checkland and Scholes (1990)
  • developed from further action research
  • two interacting streams of structured enquiry
    together lead to changes
  • - logic-based stream holons
  • - cultural analysis stream
  • mode 2 is more a framework of ideas
  • the version of mode 1 is seen as just one option

17
Stages of SSM 1. the problem situation
unstructured
  • (See Fig 24.1, p. 471 in Avison Fitzgerald
    (2003))
  • explore the problem situation to understand the
    real causes
  • problem owners those on whose behalf the study
    has been initiated
  • actors those taking part in the situation, other
    stakeholders
  • analysts attempt to reveal many possible views of
    the situation
  • the structure of the problem situation physical
    layout, reporting structure, formal and informal
    communication patterns
  • activities carried out
  • climate relationships between structure and
    activities

18
Stages of SSM 2. the problem situation
expressed
  • express the problem situation more formally
  • no particular way prescribed, but rich pictures
    are often used as a communication technique
  • elements include
  • clients, actors, tasks, the environment, problem
    areas, conflicts, concerns, controlling bodies,
    other stakeholders, relationships, issues
  • exploration, discussion, communication to help
    move from thinking about the problem situation
    towards thinking about what can be done about it

19
Rich pictures
  • graphical representation of the organisation or
    work area
  • self explanatory and easy to understand
  • a subjective process there is no correct
    picture
  • hard facts e.g. activities, departmental
    boundaries, physical and geographical layout,
    product types, resources,
  • soft facts concerns, conflicts,
    socio-organisational roles, political issues,
    relationships, employee needs,
  • rich pictures help
  • - to identify what is really important in the
    situation
  • - people understand their role in the
    organisation
  • - to define aspects of the organisation to be
    addressed by the information system

20
Primary tasks and issues
  • Rich pictures also help to identify primary tasks
    and issues
  • primary tasks
  • tasks the organisation must perform as part of
    its purpose what is central to this
    organisation?
  • the boundaries of primary task systems coincide
    with a real world manifestation
  • e.g. a functional boundary as in a personnel
    system
  • issues
  • topics or matters of concern or conflict
  • generally the boundaries of issue-based systems
    do not map on to real world boundaries
  • e.g. a system to resolve disagreements about
    resource usage

21
Stages of SSM 3. root definitions of relevant
systems
  • the problem solver imagines and names relevant
    systems a way of looking at the problem
    situation which provides useful insights
  • a system is a perceived, meaningful grouping of
    people, objects and activities
  • e.g. problem theme conflicts between two
    departments
  • a relevant system a systems that redefines
    departmental boundaries
  • identify one or more relevant systems for each
    problem theme
  • a subjective process, several relevant systems
    should be identified, both primary task systems
    and issue-based systems

22
Root definitions
  • a root definition is created for each relevant
    system
  • relevant systems are a focus for debate and
    exploration
  • root definition
  • a concise, verbal definition expressing the
    nature of a purposeful activity system regarded
    as relevant to exploring the problem situation
  • useful in exposing different views
  • (see examples Avison and Fitzgerald 1995, pp
    120-122)
  • expresses the core purpose of a purposeful
    activity system and is always a transformation
    of some input entity into a new form of entity
    (output)
  • use the CATWOE checklist to ensure that six
    essential characteristics are included

23
Root definitions
  • the CATWOE checklist
  • who is doing what for whom, to whom are they
    answerable, what assumptions are being made, and
    in what environment is it occurring?
  • C ustomers victims or beneficiaries of T
  • A ctors those who do T
  • T ransformation the conversion of input to
    output
  • W eltanschauung the assumptions, the world view
    which makes T meaningful in context
  • O wner those who could stop T
  • E nvironment elements outside the system which
    it takes as given

24
Stages of SSM 4. building conceptual models
  • develop a conceptual model for each root
    definition
  • an informal diagram of something relevant to the
    situation
  • not a model of the situation, but a diagram of
    the activities of what the system described by
    the root defintion will do
  • conceptual models are used to structure enquiry
    into the problem situation, not for checking that
    the model matches the real world
  • the process of building root definitions and
    conceptual models is an iterative process of
    debate and modification moving towards an agreed
    definition

25
Conceptual models
  • Checkland Scholes (1990)
  • assemble and structure the minimum necessary
    activities to carry out T
  • base this on logical contingency
  • to convert raw materials into a finished
    product, you first need to obtain the raw
    materials
  • identify the monitor and control activities and
    the operational activities
  • structure similar activities in groups together
  • use arrows to show logical contingency
  • See Avison Fitzgerald (1995) pp 122-127 for
    some examples

26
Stages of SSM 5. comparing conceptual models
with perceived reality
  • this debate creates new perceptions of reality,
    suggests new relevant systems, and concentrates
    thought on possible changes
  • use informal discussion, formal questioning,
    scenario writing based on operating the models,
    trying to model the real world using the
    conceptual model
  • formal questioning supported by creation of a
    matrix comparing activities in the model with the
    activities in the real world
  • the aim is to compare the models with the real
    world to find an accommodation between different
    interests in the situation which is seen to be an
    improvement of the initial problem situation
  • not a solution in the hard systems thinking
    sense

27
Stages of SSM stages 6 7
  • 6. assessing feasible and desirable change
  • analysis of changes proposed in Stage 5 to create
    proposals for those considered feasible and
    desirable
  • may or may not involve the development of an
    information system
  • 7. action to improve the situation
  • recommend action to improve the situation
  • no methods described for implementing
    solutions
  • changes must be systemically desirable truly
    relevant to the situation
  • and culturally feasible perceived as meaningful
    within the particular culture and its world view

28
SSM mode 2
  • Checkland and Scholes (1990)
  • two streams of structured enquiry unfold through
    time interactively
  • - logic-based stream
  • - cultural analysis stream
  • the stream of cultural enquiry
  • - analysis of the intervention
  • - social system analysis
  • - political system analysis
  • all three cultural analyses complement the
    logic-based stream

29
SSM mode 2 cultural enquiry stream
  • analysis of the intervention Analysis One
  • intervention in in a problem situation is itself
    problematical
  • useful to analyse roles in the study
  • who has the role client why have they
    requested the intervention?
  • who has the role would-be problem solver
    their perceptions, knowledge and readiness to
    make resources available
  • who has the role problem owner

30
SSM mode 2 cultural enquiry stream
  • social system analysis Analysis Two
  • uses a model of a social system as a continually
    changing interaction between three elements
  • roles, norms, and values
  • role a social position recognised as
    significant, e.g. team captain
  • norm characterises a role, e.g. expected
    behaviours
  • value used to judge performance of a role,
    e.g. beliefs about what is good and bad
    behaviour
  • (the engineering company example)
  • the account of the social system will never be
    complete or static

31
SSM mode 2 cultural enquiry stream
  • political system analysis Analysis Three
  • politics a process by which differing interests
    reach accomodation
  • what are the commodities through power is
    expressed in this situation?
  • e.g. formal authority. personal charisma,
    intellectual authority, external reputation,
    access to information, membership of particular
    groups
  • how are these commodities obtained, preserved and
    passed on?
  • analysis three enriches cultural appreciation
    from analyses one and two
  • tacit level (the real politics) vs explicit level
    of analysis

32
SSM and information systems
  • Checkland and Scholes (1990) suggest
  • develop an information flow model
  • define information categories and data structures
  • design of an information system
  • SSM could enrich the information requirements
    definition steps of other methodologies

33
Soft Systems Methodology
  • for fuzzy, ill-structured problem situations
  • for problem exploration
  • not prescriptive or technique-oriented
  • action research oriented experience in use of
    SSM helps to refine the methodology
  • used in different ways by different users in
    different circumstances
  • is it just a front end?
  • practicality? Is it too vague?
  • is it just consensus seeking?

34
SSM criticisms
  • too subjective
  • - all viewpoints are considered equally valid
  • - ignores political and social structures
    conditioning peoples views
  • - ignores power relationships that constrain
    peoples actions
  • assumes improvement can occur just by changing
    peoples views without changing the social
    structures that shape our views
  • ignores issues of conflict and coercion and the
    difficulties of avoiding superficial consensus

35
SSM criticisms
  • exploration of world views should be an ongoing
    process, posing difficulties in practical
    situations of moving from abstract debate to
    pragmatic problem solving
  • e.g. Flood and Jackson (1991) p. 189
  • argue that SSM resolves this difficulty by
    merely leaving closure of the debate to the
    prevailing power structures as reflected in the
    dominant culture of the organisation
  • Flood, R.L. and Jackson, M.C. (1991) Creative
    Problem Solving Total Systems Intervention.
    Wiley, Chichester

36
References
  • Prescribed text
  • Avison, D.E. Fitzgerald, G. (2003).
    Information Systems Development Methodologies,
    Techniques and Tools. (3rd ed), McGraw-Hill,
    London.
  • Chapters 4.1, 10.1-10.3, 24.1
  • Checkland, P.B. and Scholes, J. (1990). Soft
    Systems Methodology in Action. Wiley, Chichester.
  • Refer to additional references in the readings
    at the unit web page and in the prescribed text
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