Politics and the Wars of Religion in the 16th Century

1
Politics and the Wars of Religion in the 16th
Century
2
Politics and the New Statecraft

• To begin our study of politics, we first should
  look at how what we know as modern diplomacy
  evolved
  
• Its origins can be found in Italy, a cauldron
  with nearly 15 different and competing republics
  and principalities
  
• This competition and the frequent wars forced
  Italians to come up with ways to maintain the
  peace and keep pace with their neighbors
  
• Another result of this new emphasis upon politics
  and diplomacy was the emergence of ambassadors

3
Machiavelli The Prince

• Finally, one man exemplified this new diplomacy
  and gave his name to a style, infamous or not,
  Niccolò Machiavelli
  
• In the words of Will Durant, he was hard to
  classify diplomat, historian, dramatist,
  philosopher the most cynical thinker of his
  time, and yet a patriot fired with a noble ideal
  a man who failed in everything that he undertook,
  but left upon history a deeper mark than almost
  any other figure of the age.
• He looked back to Rome as the ideal
• The Prince
• One of the few radically original books in
  history
  
• It was essentially a manual on power its uses
  and applications
  
• Did not deny the force of law or religion, but
  how to use them in the tactics of governing
  
• Fear and respect are basis of power control is
  the key
  
• The ends justify the means

4
The Hapsburgs

• By the beginning of the 16th century, one family,
  through marriage and war would inherit and
  control most of Europe west of the Vistula
  
• The process began with Maximilian I, who through
  marriage to Mary of Burgundy, added the Low
  Countries
  
• He tried to reclaim Italy for the Empire, but
  after disappointment, resumed his fathers policy
  of diplomatic marriages
  
• His son Philip married Juana, daughter of
  Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, bringing as her
  dowry Spain
  
• The result of that union was Charles who first
  succeeded to throne of Spain (1516) and then to
  his grandfathers position as Holy Roman Emperor
  in 1519

5
Charles V (1516-1556)

• Born in 1500 in Ghent and brought up in the Low
  Counties until his succession to the Spanish
  throne, Charles was a mix of nationalities,
  though in his old age he identified more with his
  Spanish heritage than his German he was once
  said "I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women,
  French to men and German to my horse."
• He was a young and hopeful prince when he
  ascended to his various thrones, but he was
  unfortunate that his reign would be marked by
  religious upheaval and war to maintain his vast
  empire
• Charles dominions
• Spain and its empire in the New World
• Austria the Holy Roman Empire
• The Low Countries
• Italy, specifically Naples and Sicily later
  Milan and other areas in northern Italy were added

6
Wars to secure his empire

• Throughout history, great empires create fear and
  hostility among their neighbors, fearful of
  encirclement or total envelopment, and that was
  true of Charles empire as he had to fight
  several wars against political rivals and
  religious schism
• Against France Hapsburg-Valois Wars
• Against the Protestants
• Against the Turks
• The sacking of Rome, 1527

7
Germany the Holy Roman Empire

• Although nominally controlled by Charles V as
  Holy Roman Emperor, it was neither as organized
  or centralized as the emerging nation-states of
  England and France
• However, the emperor still held immense authority
  from his title and as the premier prince in
  Germany
  
• Therefore, the quip of Voltaire that it was
  neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire does not
  apply yet that must wait for the events of the
  17th century

8
Holy Roman EmpireOrganization

• The Holy Roman Empire was a loose confederation
  stretching east to west from the Low Countries to
  Bohemia and north to south from the Baltic to
  Italy
• Within this vast and diverse territory were 2,000
  imperial knights, 50 ecclesiastical and 30
  secular princes, 100 counts, 70 prelates, and 66
  imperial free cities
• All were nominally under the authority of the
  emperor, but were essentially free to do what
  they wanted
  
• Just under the Emperor were seven major princes
  known as The Electors they were entitled by the
  Golden Bull of 1356 to elect the Emperor
  
• Ecclesiastical Princes Archbishops of Mainz,
  Trier Cologne
  
• Lay Princes Count Palatine of the Rhine, Duke of
  Saxony, Margrave of Brandenburg, and the King of
  Bohemia

9
Valois France

• All throughout Charles reign, his great enemy
  was France, led by the Valois, and this conflict
  between Hapsburg and Valois would continue with
  new adversaries until the end of the 17th
  century
• Francis I (1515-1547)
• Succeeded his cousin as king in 1515,
  inaugurating the Valois dynasty
  
• A generous and charming man, but whose education
  did not equal he could also be very volatile -
  Franciss main contribution was continuing the
  adventure into Italy and thus continuing the
  war with Spain and involving himself and France
  against Charles V
• In fact, they would remain enemies until their
  deaths goal was breaking the Hapsburg
  encirclement of France
  
• The wars with the Hapsburg would continue until
  1544, and although France would suffer, Francis
  began the process that would make France great
  and the envy of Europe in the 17th century

10
French Wars of Religion

• France was not immune to the effects of the
  Reformation
  
• From about 1540 to 1560, Protestantism in the
  form of Calvinism spread through France gaining
  adherents in many locations
  
• Known as Huguenots they were a fervent and
  militant minority
  
• More importantly, despite the fact that the
  majority of population was still Catholic, it was
  estimated that 40 to 50 of nobility converted
  to Calvinism, which like their counterparts in
  Germany, could use their religion against the
  centralizing authority of the monarchy

11
Conflict between Catholic and Huguenots

• Soon the antagonism would spread to open warfare
  as France divided into two factions the house
  of Guise, who at times controlled Paris and
  influenced the monarchy and the house of Bourbon,
  Protestant and next in line to the throne
• It was the actions of Henry, Duke of Guise that
  would spark war Massacre at Vassy, 1562
  
• Throughout 1560s, Huguenots hold their own
  knowing the Henry de Bourbon, is the future of
  France and to heal the religious divide,
  Catherine de Medici, the Queen Mother, offers her
  daughter Margaret in marriage but what began in
  hope ends in despair and becomes one of the great
  tragedies of the 16th century

12
Conflict between Catholic and Huguenots

• St. Bartholomews Day Massacre
• August 1572
• Henry of Bourbon and Huguenots invited to Paris
  for wedding of Henry to Margaret, sister of
  Charles IX
  
• The Guises convince Charles to kill all the
  Huguenot leaders
  
• In the orgy of murder and death that engulfs
  Paris and to an extent the provinces, Henry does
  escape but 3,000 Huguenots are killed, but
  estimates of the total deaths range from 5,000 to
  30,000
• So war is again renewed between the faiths and
  the ultra-Catholics, who have the monarchy under
  their influence, form the Catholic League in
  alliance with Spain to destroy the Huguenots in
  France

13
Conflict between Catholic and Huguenots

• The Politiques
• War of the Three Henries (1588-1589)
• Charles IX, a weak and unbalanced man, soon dies
  (only 24) and is succeeded by his brother who
  becomes Henry III (1574-1589)
  
• Henry, Duke of Guise, seizes Paris and forces
  Henry III to appoint him chief minister
  
• Henry III then has Guise assassinated and allies
  himself with Henry of Navarre to retake Paris and
  destroy the Catholic League
  
• Henry III is in turn assassinated by a monk for
  allying with Henry
  
• Henry of Navarre (Bourbon) becomes king
• Henry IVs Conversion and the Edict of Nantes
• Paris is worth a Mass
• Edict of Nantes issued in 1598 acknowledged
  Catholicism as official religion but guaranteed
  the Huguenots the right to worship in selected
  areas in every district and allowed them to
  retain some fortified towns for their protection

14
Philip II and Militant Catholicism

• Son of Charles V
• Main goal was to consolidate the lands he
  inherited
  
• Wanted to make Spain dominant power in Europe
  had consequences politically and economically
  
• Politically Imperial overstretch
• Economic Expenses of wars, despite New World
  wealth which was only 20, proved too much
  government continually forced to borrow Philip
  repudiated his debts 7 times during his reign by
  end of his reign 2/3s of state income went to
  paying debt
• "Most Catholic King"
• As a Spaniard, Philip took his Catholicism very
  seriously
  
• Saw himself as the means of destroying heresy,
  either Protestant or Turk

15
William of Orange and Dutch Independence

• Spanish Netherlands comprised of 17 provinces
  richest of Philips domains seven northern were
  Germanic in culture and Dutch speaking ten
  southern were French and Flemish in nature tied
  to France
• Economically very important
• Origins of Revolt
• Philip attempts to strengthen control over
  provinces opposed by nearly all groups
  
• Resentment over increased taxes to support
  Spanish interests
  
• Introduction of Calvinism to Spanish Netherlands
  violence erupts in 1566 when Calvinists attack
  Catholic churches
  
• Philip tried to crush Calvinists sends in the
  Duke of Alva with 10,000 Italian and Spanish
  troops to crush rebellion

16
William of Orange and Dutch Independence

• Common people join the Calvinists when Alva
  institutes sales tax
  
• Council of Troubles institutes reign of terror
  throughout the land
  
• Opposition organizes in the north lead by William
  of Nassau, Prince of Orange in alliance with
  group of Dutch pirates known as the Sea
  Beggars
• 1573 Philip removes Alva
• 1576 Pacification of Ghent
• The Duke of Parma
• Southern provinces form in 1579 the Union of
  Arras and accept Spanish control
  
• Northern provinces form Union of Utrecht with
  William as head
  
• Struggle continues until 1609 when 12 year truce
  is declared northern or United Provinces
  recognized as virtually independent

17
Henry VIII and the English Reformation

• Cause of English Reformation Henrys need for an
  heir
  
• Henry is married to Catherine of Aragon, who had
  been betrothed to his older brother Arthur
  
• Only one child from marriage Mary
• Henry believes his marriage is cursed (see I)
• Solutions
• Henry orders his Lord Chancellor, Cardinal
  Wolsey, to secure an annulment from Rome so he
  can remarry
  
• Wolsey fails and is removed in 1529, dying
  shortly after
  
• Henry entrusts Thomas Cramer and Thomas Cromwell
  to solve problem suggest Henry go to Englands
  own ecclesiastical courts
  
• May of 1533, Englands ecclesiastical courts are
  separated from Rome by act of Parliament
  
• Act of Supremacy (1534)
• Treason Act
• Dissolution of the monasteries, 1536
• Political break with Rome, but not religious
  many of Catholic doctrine are kept intact

18
Edward VI and Mary

• Henry dies in 1547 and is succeeded by his 9 year
  old son Edward
  
• Regency is declared and regents see opportunity
  to further reform the English church Book of
  Common Prayer
  
• Edward dies in 1553 and is succeeded by his older
  sister Mary
  
• She is a Catholic and tries to restore the old
  faith
  
• Bloody Mary
• By the end of her reign England was more
  Protestant than at beginning

19
Elizabeth

• Elizabeth succeeds her unpopular sister Mary in
  1558 as a young woman of 25
  
• Upon taking the throne, which she would hold
  until 1603, Elizabeth was described as
  moderately tall, with a good figure, fair
  features, olive complexion, flashing eyes, auburn
  hair, and beautiful hands which she knew how to
  display
• Many thought she would not last as England was in
  dire straits with enemies on all sides as
  invasion was a constant threat many would be
  surprised to find a determination and steel
  beneath that feminine frame as she would become
  one of the greatest of Englands monarchs

20
Elizabethan England

• Due to her position, Elizabeth in all her actions
  takes a path of moderation and compromise
  
• Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity
• Government
• Again, in politics, Elizabeth followed policies
  of moderation and compromise the great divide
  between the faiths also entered politics there
  was also the fact that Elizabeth was a woman,
  that she would not marry and continue the
  dynasty, and she was still considered a bastard
  and thus illegitimate
• Elizabeth was also helped by having the services
  of two very capable administrators
  
• Sir William Cecil
• Sir Francis Walsingham
• Handled Parliament with great skill only met 13
  times during her reign

21
Conflict with Spain and the Spanish Armada

• England, Spain and the Dutch Revolt
• 1588 Spanish Armada
• Largest fleet ever assembled at that time
• Would sail up the English Channel rendezvous
  with the Duke of Parmas army in the Netherlands
  and then invade England
  
• Course of Battle
• Greatest naval disaster since battle of Salamis
  between Greeks Persians
  
• Conflict between England and Spain continues
  until 1604, well after the death of both Philip
  and Elizabeth

22
Conclusion

• As one can see, European politics in the 16th
  century was a bubbling cauldron the conflict
  between the rival faiths, despite the Peace of
  Augsburg, continued, while the rival states and
  dynasties of Europe, specifically Hapsburg and
  Valois, continued their own ebb and flow of
  conflict
• However, a greater calamity was over the horizon,
  resulting in the final surge of war and hatred
  that would engulf the middle decades of the 17th
  century and when the smoke of battle settled, the
  balance of power would be shifted away from the
  Hapsburgs to their enemy, the Bourbons, and
  Europe would experience a political
  transformation that, in truth, still exists to
  today