6. The Levant: 1200-720 BCE

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6. The Levant 1200-720 BCE

• BOT612 Old Testament Backgrounds

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Crisis Political Change 1200-900

• "The political pattern of the Near East c. 1200
  can be summarized broadly as follows in the
  Levant, Cyprus and Mycenaean Greece the basic
  political unit was the city-state usually
  controlling a fair stretch of surrounding
  territory. Between c. 1400 and 1200, the small
  states of the Levant generally formed part of the
  Hittite or Egyptian sphere of imperial control
  Cyprus (or part of it), too, was dominated by the
  Hittites at the end of the thirteenth century. To
  the east a contemporary political power was
  Kassite Babylonia, although it was being eclipsed
  in the second half of the thirteenth century by
  the meteoric rise of Assyria to the north (the
  Middle Assyrian empire), and the establishment of
  a strong Elamite state to the east."

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Crisis Political Change 1200-900

• "1200 . . . to the east, Assyria, Babylonia and
  Elam appear to have remained relatively stable
  until around the mid-eleventh century.
• Crisis in the West
• "First, the great Hittite empire, with the
  exception of one or two of its subject kingdoms
  (e.g. Carchemish), disappeared completely around
  (or probably soon after) 1200."
• "Second, several cities in the Levant, most
  strikingly Ugarit and Emar, were destroyed around
  this time, and their sites not reoccupied."
• "Finally, soon after the middle of the twelfth
  century, Egypts control of the southern Levant
  ended by the early eleventh century it had
  withdrawn within its narrowest frontiers, having
  lost control over Sinai and Nubia."

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The Sea Peoples

• Merneptah (1224/1213-1204)
• There is a description, "(inscribed at Karnak) of
  a war fought by Merneptah in his fifth year (1220
  (1209)) against a Libyan coalition attempting to
  move into the western Delta. Included in the
  Libyan forces were people who are designated,
  variously, as northerners coming from all lands
  and of the countries of the sea. Modern
  scholars have therefore dubbed them simply
  sea-peoples. They are listed as being S_?gt0rdn,
  3kws, Trs, S0krws and Rwkw. A total of the
  numbers of prisoners taken from the first four
  groups is preserved 2200 in all. This needs to
  be set against the 7000 Libyan prisoners (several
  different tribes were

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The Sea Peoples

• involved). The impression, then, is that these
  Libyan allies constituted a proportionally
  smaller force. The Egyptian account mentions that
  the sea-people contingents consisted of men
  only, unlike the Libyans, who were accompanied by
  their families. This implies that the
  sea-peoples were mercenary soldiers hired by
  the Libyan chief."

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Merneptah Monument at Karnak
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Merneptah Monument at Karnak
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The Sea Peoples

• Ramesses III (1184-1150)
• "Over forty (or thirty) years later (1176),
  Ramesses III fought in his eighth year a
  campaign, which was elaborately commemorated
  (pictorially and textually) in his great funerary
  temple at Medinet Habu, against an attack of
  peoples moving south from Syria by sea and by
  land. Some of them, such as the Tjkr, Prst, Wss
  and Dnn, had not been mentioned before, while two
  (S0rdn, S0krs Trs - extremely doubtful) were
  among the Libyan allies in Merneptahs campaign
  forty-four (or thirty-three) years earlier."

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The Sea Peoples

• ". . . as for the foreign countries, they made a
  conspiracy in their islands. All at once the
  lands were on the move, scattered in war. No
  country could stand before their arms Hatti,
  Kode (Cilicia), Carchemish, Arzawa and Alashiya
  (Cyprus). They were cut off. A camp was set up in
  one place in Amor (Amurru, i.e. north Syria).
  They desolated its people, and its land was like
  that which has never come into being. They were
  advancing on Egypt while the flame was prepared
  before them. Their league was Prst, Tjkr, S0krs,
  Dnn and Wss united lands. They laid their hands
  upon the lands to the very circuit of the earth,
  their hearts confident and trusting Our plans
  will succeed." (ANET, 262-263)

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The Sea Peoples

• "I extended all the boundaries of Egypt. I
  overthrew those who invaded them from their
  lands. I slew the Dnn who are in their isles,
  the Tjkr and the Prst were made ashes. The S0rdn
  and the Wss of the sea, they were made as those
  that exist not, taken captive at one time,
  brought as captives to Egypt, like the sand of
  the shore I settled them in strongholds bound in
  my name. Numerous were their classes like
  hundred-thousands. I assigned portions for them
  all with clothing and grain from the store-houses
  and granaries each year. . . . I made the
  infantry and chariotry to dwell at home in my
  time the S0rdn and Khk (a Libyan group) were in
  their towns, lying the length of their backs
  they had no fear, for there was

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The Sea Peoples

• no enemy from Kush nor foe from Syria. Their
  bows and their weapons were laid up in their
  magazines, while they were satisfied and drunk
  with joy. Their wives were with them, their
  children at their side for I was with them as
  the defence and protection of their limbs."
  (Papyrus Harris I ANET, 262)

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Mortuary Temple of Rameses III in Medinet Habu
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Mortuary Temple of Rameses III in Medinet Habu
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The Sea Peoples

• "The conclusion to be drawn from the Egyptian
  evidence alone is that some groups of people,
  perhaps at home in coastal areas of southern
  Turkey, were affected adversely by a series of
  economic difficulties in the thirteenth and
  twelfth centuries and therefore hired themselves
  out as mercenary soldiers to states such as
  Egypt, but also to others (e.g. Libyans). A small
  number were forced by the growing crisis to take
  their families and farming stock in the hope of
  finding new lands where they might settle. Others
  (e.g. the Lukka in EA 38) used boats to raid the
  coastline, which was probably little more than an
  extension of their normal piratical activities.
  The implication is that they were relatively

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The Sea Peoples

• poor people who, perhaps as a result of the
  gradual decline of central control by major
  powers, such as the Hittites, moved around in
  small bands to find further means of survival by
  plunder, encroaching on land and mercenary
  activities. Further, although these movements
  seem to have been on the increase and to have
  become, in some cases, more aggressive, they were
  not a new phenomenon, and the Egyptians seem to
  have had established means for absorbing at least
  some of the people involved into their service."

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The Sea Peoples Origins (?)

• "Clear evidence for the origins of the Sea
  Peoples is still missing. Disregarding some
  farfetched theories, the admissible views may be
  roughly classified according to three main
  geographical zones. (a) The N Balkans,
  particularly Illyria on the Adriatic coast the
  "Illyrian theory" is related with the
  identification of the Philistines (Palaisti may
  be the original form of the name) with the
  Pelasgoi (sometimes spelled Pelastoi) of the
  classical sources, a pre-Hellenic people who
  inhabited the Balkans and the Aegean regions.

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The Sea Peoples Origins (?)

• (b) The W Aegean region, i.e., Greece, the
  Aegean islands, and Crete this theory relies on
  archaeological (mainly ceramic) comparisons and
  on the biblical tradition, which brings the
  Philistines from the island of Caphtor, i.e.,
  Crete. (c) The E Aegean, i.e., Anatolia and the
  offshore islands. This view, which is gaining
  increasing acceptance, is supported by the most
  solid and diversified evidence."

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Philistines Introduction

• ""The Philistines (Heb pe6listm), whose
  country of origin is still unknown, must have
  come to Canaan through the Aegean basin,
  destroying the Mycenaean and Minoan
  civilizations. They came partly overland via
  Anatolia, destroying the Hittite empire, Ugarit,
  and Amurru, and partly by ship via Crete (Caphtor
  of the Bible, cf. Amos 97 and Jer 474 Keftiu
  of the Egyptians) and Cyprus ("ships come from
  the quarter of Kittim," i.e. Cyprus Num 2424
  probably alludes to the first waves of the Sea
  Peoples). They were allied with other Sea
  Peoples, and their ultimate goal was to settle in
  Egypt. In about 1190, Rameses III clashed with
  them and defeated them. Rameses settled the
  conquered

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Philistines Introduction

• Philistines, mostly as Egyptian mercenaries, in
  the coastal towns, Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ashdod
  (cf. Deut 223, where "Caphtorim" refers to the
  Philistines). The connection between Egypt and
  Caphtorim is reflected in Gen 1013-14. The term
  "the Negeb of the Cherethites" (1 Sam 3014) may
  reflect Philistine occupation of that part of the
  Negeb (for the identification of Cherethites as
  Philistines, cf. Ezek 2516)."

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Philistines History

• "The signs of destruction in Ashdod, Ashkelon,
  and Gaza suggest that sometimes after the reign
  of Rameses VI (ca. 1150 b.c.e.), the Philistines
  drove out their Egyptian overlords by force."
• "The Philistine Pentapolis was formed, a
  confederation of Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ashdod,
  together with two towns in the Shephelah which
  had already been settled by Philistines Ekron
  and Gath. Each of these towns was a city-state,
  consisting of a "royal city" ruling a number of
  "country towns" (1 Sam 275, cf. 1 Sam 618). The
  rulers of these city-states were called
  se6ra4nm (singular, seren), a title whose
  etymology has not yet been satisfactorily
  explained it may be from the Hittite word for

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Philistines History

• "Judge." For the next 150 years, until about
  1000 b.c.e., the Philistine confederation was the
  most powerful entity in this corner of the world,
  occupying the land strip from Raphia in the S to
  Joppa, spreading gradually N (they founded Tell
  Qasile) and E through the Jezreel Valley to
  Beth-shan, and even establishing their hegemony
  over the Israelite tribes in the hill country
  (cf. 1 Sam 105 1323-1416, and also 2 Sam
  2313-17). The source of Philistine power was
  apparently in the jealously defended monopoly of
  iron wares and the art of forging iron (1 Sam
  1319-21)."

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Philistines History

• "Very early the Philistines accepted the local
  Canaanite deities, dedicating temples to Dagon in
  Gaza (Judg 1621-23), Ashdod (1 Sam 52-3), and
  Beth-shan (1 Chr 1010-12), and to Astarte (1 Sam
  3110)."
• "The clashes between the Philistines and the
  Israelites are vividly reflected in the book of
  Judges. Despite the heroic exploits of Samson
  (Judges 13-16) and Shamgar son of Anath (Judg
  331), the pressure of the Philistines was
  relentless, as seen in the tales of the migration
  of part of the tribe of Dan, who traveled N in
  their search for a safe refuge."

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Philistines History

• "Further evidence of the advance of the
  Philistines can be found in the defeat of the
  Israelites at Ebenezer (the Philistines had
  already reached Aphek), resulting in the loss of
  the ark of the covenant and the destruction of
  the holy precinct Shiloh (1 Sam 4 cf. Jer 712,
  14)."
• Samuel's victory over the Philistines (1 Sam
  75-14), even if it is historical, did not
  appreciably reduce the pressure of the
  Philistines. The people demanded a king to lead
  them in war. The king chosen was Saul, whose wars
  with the Philistines can be traced from the
  beginning of his reign (1 Sam 13) until its
  tragic end on Mount Gilboa (1 Samuel 31). The
  eventual victor, however, was David, whose
  triumphs over the

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Philistines History

• Philistines (1 Samuel 17 186-9, 25-27, 30
  198) had gained him such renown as to arouse the
  jealousy and hatred of Saul. David was forced to
  flee, and eventually to become a vassal to his
  former foes the Philistines (1 Samuel 27, 29)."
• After the death of Saul, David was crowned king
  of Judah in Hebron (2 Sam 21-4), apparently with
  the consent of the Philistines. When David was
  chosen king over all Israel, however, and moved
  his capital to Jerusalem, the Philistines
  realized their danger and attacked. David's
  victories over the Philistines made Israel the
  leading power in the land of Canaan. We may
  assume that Gath became a vassal state to Israel.
  This change is suggested by David's

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Philistines History

• mercenaries from Gath, who were under the
  command of Ittai the Gittite (cf. 2 Sam
  1518-22), and by his bodyguard, the Cherethites
  and the Pelethites (2 Sam 818 1518 207, 23
  1 Kgs 138, 44 1 Chr 1817). The crushing defeat
  inflicted by David appears to have put an end to
  the Philistine Pentapolis henceforward each
  city-state acted independently in its own selfish
  interest. It seems likely that the Philistines
  made a defensive alliance with Pharaoh to protect
  them against David otherwise it is difficult to
  explain how Pharaoh was able to capture Gezer and
  give it as a dowry to his daughter, the wife of
  Solomon (1 Kgs 916). Forty years later
  apparently the same geopolitical situation

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Philistines History

• enabled Shishak to invade Judah and Israel (1
  Kgs 1425), because no Philistine city, except
  Gaza, his starting point, is mentioned in his
  list of conquered towns. After the death of
  Shishak, Egypt was no longer a power in Asia. In
  the constant struggles between the Philistines
  and Israel (cf. 1 Kgs 1527 1615) and the
  Philistines and Judah, in which the Philistines
  turned to the Edomites and the Arabs as allies
  (cf. Amos 16-8 2 Chr 2116-17), Judah sometimes
  prevailed (2 Chr 1711 266), and sometimes the
  Philistines (2 Chr 2116-17 2818, until a new
  factor appeared on the scene, Assyria."

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Philistines History

• "Philistia (Akk Pa-la-as8-tu) appears in Assyrian
  records for the first time in the inscriptions of
  Adad-nirari III (810-783 BCE ANET, 281b, 282a),
  but Assyrian domination of Philistia started only
  after the conquest of Syria by Tiglath-pileser
  III, when the Assyrian empire reached the
  Mediterranean, and the Assyrians began to try to
  dominate the maritime trade of the coastal towns
  of Phoenicia and Philistia. In 734 b.c.e., the
  first Assyrian campaign against Philistia began
  its main object was the conquest of Gaza (the
  sequence of events is very fully expressed in
  Zech 95-6). The king of Gaza, Hanno, fled to
  Egypt, but later returned and was reinstated as a
  vassal of Assyria."

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Philistines History

• ". . . when Sargon ascended the throne of
  Assyria, Hanno joined the Syro-Palestinian
  rebellion headed by the king of Hamath, which was
  also supported by Egypt. In 720, Sargon, having
  crushed the rebels near Qarqar, attacked
  Philistia. Hanno called on the Egyptian army for
  help. The Assyrians met the Egyptians near
  Raphiah, defeated them, captured Hanno and took
  him captive to Assyria. Gaza subsequently
  remained a loyal vassal until the end of the
  Assyrian empire."

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Philistines Material Culture
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Ashdod Map
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Ashdod Material Culture
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Ashkelon
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(No Transcript)
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Ashkelon Material Culture
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Ashkelon Mycenaean IIIC1b Pottery
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Ashkelon Mycenaean IIIC1b Pottery
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Ashkelon Mycenaean IIIC1b Pottery
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Ashkelon Mycenaean IIIC1b Pottery
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Ashkelon Material Culture
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Ashkelon Material Culture
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Ekron Map
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Ekron Inscription
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Ekron Inscription
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Ekron Temple
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Ekron Mycenaean IIIC1b Pottery
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Aramaeans

• Deut 26.5 "A wandering Aramean was my ancestor
  he went down into Egypt and lived there as an
  alien, few in number, and there he became a great
  nation mighty and populous."
• "Assyrian and biblical texts reveal the presence
  of people called Arameans living in most parts of
  Syria from the end of the 2d millennium BC."
• ". . . the general designation Aramaeans masks
  the fact that they are not a unified group,
  except in terms of their language."

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Aramaeans Assyrian Sources

• "From the fourteenth century onwards there are
  occasional references to a people called Ahlamu
  who, most scholars now agree, were associated
  with the later Aramaeans. They appear variously
  as agricultural labourers and marauders from as
  far afield as Bahrain to Syria. But the earliest
  indisputable evidence for the Aramaeans dates
  from the reign of Tiglath-pileser I (1114-1076).
  From his fourth regnal year onwards he undertook
  at least fourteen annual policing actions against
  a people called Ahlume-Armuya in the area of the
  middle and upper Euphrates

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Aramaeans Assyrian Sources

• "I have crossed the Euphrates twenty-eight times,
  twice in one year, in pursuit of the ahlumu
  Aramaeans. I brought about their defeat from the
  city Tadmar of the land Amurru, Anat of the land
  Suhu, as far as Rapiqu of Karduniash (Babylonia).
  I brought their booty (and) possessions to my
  city Ashur."

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Aramaeans Assyrian Sources

• "It is even possible that, perhaps towards the
  end of Tiglath-pileser Is reign, Aramaean
  raiders penetrated right into the heartland of
  Assyria . . . ."
• ". . . subsequently, Ashur-bel-kala (1074-1057)
  was definitely in control of the main Assyrian
  cities, and fighting vigorously against Aramaeans
  in his turn. Admittedly, Ashur-bel-kalas account
  makes it quite plain that he was being pressed
  hard by the Aramaeans in Upper Mesopotamia-around
  the headwaters of the Khabur, along the upper
  Balikh, in the mountains and along the Euphrates
  -and, after his reign, the sources in Assyria are
  extremely scanty. When they become relatively
  plentiful again, at the end of the tenth century,
  the Assyrian evidence

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Aramaeans Assyrian Sources

• shows Aramaean states established just to the
  west of the Assyrian heartland and stretching
  right across Upper Mesopotamia."
• Ashur-dan II (934-912) " With the renewed
  expansion of Assyria from Ashur-dan II onwards,
  the Assyrian kings reasserted their claims to
  Upper Mesopotamia, and the Aramaean states were
  gradually incorporated into the revitalised
  Assyrian empire, and some inhabitants were
  deported to the Assyrian cities. Right from the
  start of its renaissance, then, the new Assyrian
  state included Aramaeans within its territorial
  span."

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Aramaeans Assyrian Sources

• "In summary, the Assyrian evidence presents a
  picture of Aramaeans pressing into Assyrian-held
  territory in the eleventh century. Their success
  in seizing and holding stretches of land is
  reflected in the emergence of a number of
  Aramaean states in Upper Mesopotamia by the tenth
  century. As the Assyrian mobilized to reconquer
  the area from the end of the tenth century on,
  they gradually absorbed these territories,
  turning them into Assyrian provinces but, at
  least in come cases, using members of the local
  Aramaean population to enforce Assyrian control.
  Such individuals owed their position to the
  Assyrian king, and came to form an integral part
  of the Assyrian imperial machinery at

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Aramaeans Assyrian Sources

• the highest levels. An indication of the fact
  that this interweaving of Aramaeans and Assyrians
  happened not only exceptionally at the very
  highest echelons is the early appearance (eighth
  century) of 'Aramaisms' in Assyrian, and the use
  of Aramaic written on parchment in certain
  contexts and for particular purposes. The
  conclusion must, therefore, be that despite the
  aggressive military tone against Aramaeans taken
  by the royal annals they came to constitute a
  significant proportion of the Assyrian population
  at all levels of the socio-political structure."
  

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Aramaeans Biblical Evidence

• "Zobah was the earliest prominent Aramaean state,
  according to the account of David's Syrian wars
  contained in 2 Samuel 8, and its formation has
  been most interestingly analysed, by analogy with
  David's creation of the strong state of Israel in
  the tenth century, by Malamat (1963). What
  Malamat has stressed in his comparison are the
  similarities in the development of the two
  regions both David and Hadadezer (king of Zobah)
  constructed their initial power-base around a
  small kernel Judah in the case of David, Beth
  Rehob in the case of Hadadezer both added a
  larger, more important adjoining region to this
  small core to create a new, unified state
  Israel was added to Judah, Zobah to Beth Rehob

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Aramaeans Biblical Evidence

• in both cases, the ruler of the new political
  formation bore the title of the larger group
  David was called the 'king of Israel' (not 'of
  Judah'), Hadadezer 'king of Zobah' (not 'of
  Rehob'). Finally, Hadadezer of Zobah may have
  annexed the important and rich oasis of Damascus
  and added some smaller states that owed him
  allegiance, but were left under their own rulers.
  Eventually, Damascus established its independence
  from both Solomon's Israel and the kingdom of
  Zobah, under its king Rezin."

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Phoenicians Introduction

• Ezekiel 27
• "Phoenicia was the Greek name for the Syrian
  littoral north of Palestine. The name meant "dark
  red" and was applied first to the people and
  region renowned for dyes of this color, and then
  to some of the natural products that became
  associated with them in international trade.
  Phoenicia was neither a country nor a nation but
  a conglomerate of city-states that was
  distinguished from adjacent areas by its habitual
  outreach into the Mediterranean world and by its
  preferred dealings with Indo-Europeans and
  Greeks. Its history consists in the contribution
  of these individual cities and their dominions to
  the civilization and gradual maturation of the
  Mediterranean world."

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Phoenicians Introduction

• "The notion that 'Phoenicia' means 'Canaanites'
  underlines the fact that the Phoenician
  city-states of Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, Beirut, Arvad
  and Sarepta represent a direct development of the
  Late Bronze Age Canaanite coastal cities. That
  the idea is basically correct is shown by the
  fact that the Phoenicians called themselves
  Canaanites the designation 'Phoenician' is
  Graeco-Roman. The Phoenician cities were those
  that appear to have been relatively slightly
  affected or disrupted by either the Aramaean
  penetration or the Israelite expansion, and so
  they were able to maintain what appear to be
  essentially the earlier Canaanite traditions. A
  plausible explanation for this continuity is their

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Phoenicians Introduction

• geographical position they lay right on the
  coast, sometimes with offshore island
  settlements, and were backed by a very narrow
  plain protected by a steep mountain range crossed
  by few passes."
• "One of the reasons for a fairly widespread
  knowledge of the Phoenicians is their extensive
  commercial activities, especially in the western
  Mediterranean, where they founded a number of
  colonies some of which developed into substantial
  cities. The foundations date to the early first
  millennium, although the precise chronology is
  disputed."

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Phoenicians Sources

• "There are references to Phoenicians in the Iliad
  and Odyssey, where they appear as highly skilled
  craftsmen, especially in metalwork, and weavers
  of elaborate garments. They may also appear as
  kidnappers and producers of cheap trinkets. The
  curiously mixed image reflects admiration and
  fear, the sort of antagonism that is now often
  felt towards gypsies and tinkers, and the kind of
  aristocratic contempt for 'trade' which is a
  hallmark of these heroic poems. Herodotus
  provides some information on their colonization,
  especially in Greece, to which he attributes the
  origin of the Greek alphabet, and their discovery
  of the goldmines on Thasos. Thucydides mentions
  that they formed the earliest

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Phoenicians Sources

• foreign settlers in Sicily, predating the Greek
  presence there. Such depictions remain at the
  level of stereotypes and generalities, and
  provide no very coherent picture, especially not
  of the Phoenician homeland. In the first century
  AD, Josephus included in his history of the
  Jewish people some material supposedly drawn from
  a lost history of Tyre basically it is little
  more than a list of kings. A little later, in the
  early second century A.D. Philo of Byblos wrote
  an account of Phoenician religion, which he
  claimed was a translation into Greek of a work of
  Sanchuniathon, a priest of Byblos. Philo's work
  is only preserved in fragments, and there has
  been considerable doubt as to whether

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Phoenicians Sources

• Sanchuniathon's work was ever anything more than
  a figment of Philo's imagination. But a more
  positive tendency has been to accept the reality
  of the Phoenician original underlying Philo's
  account, because some of it seems to correspond
  to the material now known from Ugarit, which has
  provided important insights into Canaanite
  mythology and religion. But even it we accept the
  more positive approach, Philo seems to have
  'hellenised' Sanchuniathon substantially, so the
  question of how we might use his material for
  reconstructing the Phoenician reality of the
  early first millennium remains vexed."

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Phoenicians

• "It is evident, from the extensive material from
  Ugarit, in particular, and, to a lesser degree,
  Byblos, that the Canaanite city-states played a
  central role in the trading and production system
  of the Near East, and that their commercial
  activities were stimulated by, and supported, the
  large centralized states such as Egypt, the
  Hittite realm, and Babylonia. Because of the
  demands made on them by these large and complex
  states, the coastal cities appear to have
  concentrated their energy and resources on the
  production of luxury commodities such as ivory
  inlaid furniture for royal consumption an
  industry that certainly continued in the
  Neo-Assyrian period. At the same time the
  manufacture of textiles was

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Phoenicians

• developed on a large scale to meet demands for
  tribute payments, as exemplified in the
  agreements between Ugarit and the Hittite kings.
  Textiles could also be used in exchange for raw
  materials, that either were used to produce
  luxury commodities (such as elaborate furniture
  and metalwork) or could be re-exported. An
  accompanying and necessary development was the
  perfection of ships capable of carrying bulky
  items, and the refinement of navigational skills
  a specialization that could, and was, exploited
  by some of the larger states. . . ."

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Phoenicians

• "An obvious concomitant of this development was
  that the cities and their politically powerful
  neighbours were mutually dependent, as the larger
  states provided the consumer markets on which the
  economy of the coastal cities had come to
  depend."

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Neo-Hittite States

• "'Neo-Hittite' (alternatively 'Late Hittite' or
  'Syro-Hittite') is the term applied, after 1200,
  to a number of small principalities in north
  Syria, Cilicia and south-central Anatolia. . . .
  having formed part of the earlier Hittite empire,
  they retained a number of definable Hittite
  features."