Racial Inequalities in World Economies: Brazil, South Africa and India

1
Racial Inequalities in World EconomiesBrazil,
South Africa and India

• Rebeca Frohmader
• JJ Gonzales
• Anita Kapoor
• Leslie Mallman
• May 2, 2000

2
Historical Overview
3
Brazil

• Discovered by Portuguese in 1500
• Steady colonization (by British, French, Dutch)
  for wood, sugar, gold, cotton, coffee
  
• Aborigines native subsistence farmers, used
  slash and burn technique, gathered fruit, fished,
  hunted
  
• Disputes over land colonists ally with different
  Indian groups to subdue other Indians
  

4
Brazil-Slavery

• Black slavery resulted from the incompatibility
  of slavery with Indian culture
  
• No notion of constant work- subsistence, getting
  by was easy considering the abundance of fish,
  animals, fruit
  
• Energy focused on rituals, ceremonies, wars
• Subjection of Indians through
• -ruthless alright enslavement
• -conversion

5
Slavery cont...

• Conversion by Jesuits gathered Indians into
  small towns, villages, becoming good Christian
  meant acquiring European work habits, they
  thereby created a pliable workforce
• Resistance war, fleeing into interior
  (disadvantage which Black slaves had due to their
  unfamiliarity with land)
  
• Indians also fell victims to epidemics (small
  pox, measles, tuberculosis) which wiped out
  population

6
Slavery cont...

• Indian slavery greatly abandoned and in 1570
  enslavement of Indians was prohibited by law
  (although easily flouted)
  
• Dependence on Black slavery since 1549

7
Brazil-Colonial Society

• Land ownership and slavery - rise of colonial
  nobility
  
• Social structure based on purity of blood -
  ruled out certain jobs, titles of nobility,
  intermarriage
  
• Free vs. slaves
• Hierarchy within slaves those newly arrived,
  darker slaves were relegated to more arduous work
  while the Mulattos and Creoles were preferred
  for domestic service, artisans, supervisors

8
Colonial Society, cont..

• Free African and Afro-Brazilians excluded from
  town councils
  
• Social division also based on religion Old
  Christians vs. New Christians

9
Brazil-The End of Slavery

• Britain would not acknowledge Brazils
  independence (bought from Portugal in 1825) until
  it ended its slave trade
  
• As of 1827 British vessels could inspect ships
  thought to be slave carriers. Other laws passed
  to punish slave traffickers and free slaves but
  not applied

10
The End of Slavery, cont..

• End of slavery not viable due to lack of
  alternative sources of labor, no pressure since
  few slave rebellions
  
• Bill Aberdeen- British vessels would treat
  slave ships as pirate ships, giving them the
  right to apprehend and try slavetraffickers in
  British courts

11
The End of Slavery, cont.

• 1850 end of slave trade
• Why now?
• - British pressure rose, threatened
  to block main ports
  
• - Brazil was well stocked with
  slaves
  
• - Resentment towards traffickers (many
  owed money to them or had mortgaged property to
  
  
• traffickers)

12
The End of Slavery, cont.

• While slave trade abolished, slavery was still
  legal
  
• Slave traffic within country increased
• New sources of labor - European immigrants
• Stop immigrants from becoming landowners so they
  supply labor instead
  
• 1871 Law of the Free Womb
• 1880s abolitionist movement - newspapers,
  propaganda and support from people of different
  social backgrounds

13
The End of Slavery, cont.

• 1888 slavery abolished
• In N.E. freed slaves became dependent on large
  landowners
  
• Sharecroppers, squatters, cowhands
• Move to urban areas
• - enter manufacturing
• - most stable jobs went to European
  immigrants

14
South Africa

• Discovered by Portuguese in 1488
• Used by ships traveling to India as a half-way
  house
  
• 1652 Dutch establish permanent settlement
• 1806 British occupation
• The local Hottentot race were light-brown, yellow
  skinned cattle herders
  
• Traded with settlers for tobacco and alcohol

15
South Africa, cont.

• Provided domestic services to settlers
• Land disputes, spread of European diseases such
  as small pox
  
• Could not satisfy demand for labor - Slavery
• Contact w/ slaves, Hottentots and Bushmen
  developed prejudices based on race and color
  
• -Initial distinction between Christian and
  Heathen (came to mean White and Black)
  
• - almost all blacks were slaves
• - skin color indicated status
• - Hottentots while free were not considered
  part of colony and were despised by African
  slaves who considered themselves superior
  

16
South Africa, cont.

• 1807 Abolition of British slave trade
• Look to Hottentots for labor
• Every Hottentot was required to have fixed abode
  and acquire a pass from his employer to leave farm

17
South Africa, cont.

• Children of Hottentots were considered burdens to
  farmers and were therefore apprenticed to them
  b/w the age of 8 and 18
  
• 1811 Circuit Courts - hear complaints about
  mistreatment, withheld wages
  
• 1828 ordinance abolished pass system, guaranteed
  rights of Hottentots to own land, forbade payment
  of wages in liquor or tobacco, forbade domestic
  correction of Hottentots
• 1834 Emancipation of Slaves

18
South Africa

• Blurred distinction b/w Hottentots and slaves
• Most slaves remained on farms as wage laborers
• The Kaffir Wars (against the Bantu - North
  Africans)
  
• Expulsion of Bantus into reservations that cant
  support growing population
  
• Supply labor to farms - however no more than 5
  Native families can reside at one farm (ensure
  labor needs met but that Whites control is not
  threatened)

19
South Africa

• 1845 Bantus pour into Republic- labor tenants
  (labored for certain part of the year, provided
  domestic services in return for land to
  cultivate, graze), half shares split half of
  crops with landowners, and others who paid rent
  on land
• The spread of Kaffir-farming, sharecropping
  along with Blacks right to own land worried
  whites
  
• 1913 Natives Land Act - no property could be
  bought or sold from one race to another, end
  sharecropping and cash tenants

20
South Africa

• The Natives Land Act was in preparation for
  complete segregation of black from white farmers
  - abandoned since no white farmer wanted his area
  to become the black area
• After 1870 mining other source of employment
• Natives relegated to unskilled work and low pay

21
South Africa

• Urban native (more skilled and requiring higher
  wage) had to compete w/ unskilled migrants who
  because they had other sources of income
  (sharecropping) could accept lower wages
• Skilled natives also accepted lower wages,
  threatening European workers
  
• Europeans formed trade unions Apprentices Act of
  1922 required a standard education w/c most
  Natives could not obtain, other laws prohibited
  Natives from striking, entering certain
  occupations

22
South Africa

• Pass laws reinstituted (control travel of
  Natives)
  
• Natives Act 1923- municipal authorities set aside
  locations where Natives could reside
  
• Two other Non-European groups were also
  controlled - the Cape Colored (non native blacks)
  and Indians
  
• After 1948 - beginnings of Apartheid

23
South Africa

• 1949 the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act
• 1950 the Immorality Amendment Act (prohibited
  extra-marital affairs between whites and non
  whites)
  
• 1956 Separate Representation of Voters Act
• Group Areas Act of 1950 - compulsory segregation
  of other Non-Europeans (Indians) as well blacks)
  
• The Bantu Education Act of 1953 (adapt education
  of Bantus to the lesser role they will play in
  white society)

24
South Africa

• The Extension of University Education Act 1959
  (prohibited non-whites from attending white
  university)
  
• Laws extended to trade unions, job reservation,
  public amenities (post office, railways, beaches)

25
India

• Dravidians believed to be the first to occupy and
  intermarry with locals
  
• Around 2000 BC the Aryans arrived speaking
  Sanskrit (it is believed that the Aryan tribe had
  split, one going into Europe and the other to
  Persia and India)
• Aryans took possession of Indus plains and drove
  Dravidians to East and South

26
India

• Early Hindus devoted much energy to war
• Profound contempt of Aryans for Dravidians laid
  foundation on which caste system would be built
  
• Priests and warriors already contended for
  supremacy
  
• Extremely important was the development of an
  elaborate religious philosophy
  
• Brahmans adapted themselves to Hindu superstitions

27
India

• Ceremony began to take great importance w/c
  increased Brahmans power
  
• Brahman most important member in society, warrior
  takes 2nd place
  
• Complex social code Hinduism not only a religion
  but also a set of social laws
  
• Caste system established by 7th century BC
• Origins obscure partly occupational (division of
  labor), partly because of difference b/w Aryan
  and Dravidians

28
India

• Little has changed caste system in India through
  the centuries
  
• British rule tried to set aside authority of
  castes
  
• 1850 The Castes-Disabilities Removal Act,
  facilitated conversion to another religion or
  admission into another caste, no longer had to
  give up property rights
• British liberalize marriage between castes, 1872
  the Special Marriage Act (anyone of any caste
  could marry outside caste with solemn
  renunciation of religion)

29
India

• 1858 schools receiving government aid could not
  deny admission based on caste
  
• Promulgation of uniform laws and administrative
  measures removed legal inequality in treatment of
  different castes
  
• British rule did nothing however to eliminate
  caste system which continues to be the social
  structure today
  

30
Classification of Discrimination
31
Brazil

• Three main ethnic groups White (60), black
  (7) and people of mixed ancestry (30)
  
• Mixed groups include caboclos (mixed white and
  Indian ancestry) and Mulattoes (mixed black and
  white descent)
  
• Ideological preference for whites
• Color hierarchy The whiter you are, the more
  advantages you receive.
  

32
Classification, cont.

• Denial
• It is generally officially stated that there is
  no racism or racial discrimination in Brazil
  because the Constitution explicitly prohibits it
  and because miscegenation is a fundamental aspect
  of the Brazilian population and an essential
  component of the countrys multiracial democracy

33
South Africa

• Apartheid - separateness
• Mindset - white economic, political, and social
  existence has priority over Black socioeconomic,
  political, and psychological aspirations
  
• Minority Government - racial policy to dominate
  majority of people (nonwhites)
  

34
South Africa- Racial Policy

• Stabilizes white ascendancy over blacks
• Keeps distance between whites and blacks
  economically, socially, and politically
  
• Leads to ostracism, repression, oppression, and
  dehumanization of blacks and other nonwhites

35
India

• In India social groups are not based on skin
  color, but on a hierarchical caste system, where
  differences between castes are strict and rigid.

36
India- Features of the caste system

• Membership is hereditary and fixed for life
• Choice of marriage partner is endogamous
• Contact with other castes is limited by
  restrictions on touching, association with,
  dining with, or eating food prepared by outsiders.

37
Features, continued

• The caste has a common traditional occupation.
• The relative prestige of the different castes in
  any locality is well established and jealously
  guarded.

38
India- Consciousness of membership

• Caste name
• An individuals identification with his/her caste
  in the eyes of the community
  
• Conformity to the customs of the caste
• Subjection to government by his/her caste.

39
Ambiguity between castes

• The lines between castes can be very ambiguous,
  and while a caste may be considered to be
  untouchable in one area, they are not in others.
  Also, there may be an untouchable caste with
  certain touchable sections.

40
Nuances of Discrimination
41
Brazil

• Brazilians of European descent have had better
  educational opportunities, and as a result hold
  most of the higher jobs in government and
  industry
• What most separates colored people from Whites
  is a difference in their standard of living and
  way of life
  

42
Brazil- Examples

• Ambivalent attitude toward miscegenation (mixed
  blood serves as basis for discrimination)
  
• Harassment emphasizing the inferiority of Blacks
• Black is synonymous with being poor or a
  criminal
  
• Thought of as former slaves, servants or manual
  workers
  

43
Examples, cont

• Division of labor which prevents job mobility for
  darker skinned Brazilians
  
• Housing segregation (favelas)
• Overwhelming majority of Black women work as
  domestic servants, among whom 80 receive less
  than the minimum wage
  

44
Brazil- Educational Discrimination

• Vicious cycle of poverty material poverty - low
  level of education, failure at school, lack of
  training, unemployment or unskilled work, low
  wages - material poverty
• Among children aged from 10 to 14, 87.9 of
  White children are able to attend school, 80.8
  of children of mixed parentage and 77.6 of
  Blacks.

45
Education, cont.

• Many times black children are compelled to
  abandon their education to work odd jobs to help
  meet family needs

46
Brazil- Employment Discrimination

• Virtually a racial division of labor that
  prevents Blacks and people of mixed parentage
  from practicing certain professions
  
• Mostly Whites hold occupations in the Primary
  labor market, followed by mixed and then blacks
  
• Depending on the lightness of their skin, most
  Blacks are managers, receptionist, etc (secondary
  labor market)
  

47
Employment, cont.

• Occupational and social mobility are extremely
  low among Blacks because of their lack in human
  capital
  
• Almost 90 of the Black population in urban areas
  are employed in unskilled labor, and most women
  of African descent are employed in domestic
  service.
• Wages White workers earn 2.5 times more than
  Black workers and four times more than a female
  Black worker.

48
Brazil- Housing Segregation

• The majority of Blacks live in unhealthy premises
  and districts. They make up the majority of the
  inhabitants of the favelas (shanty towns), which
  are built of makeshift materials on the outskirts
  of major cities

49
South Africa

• Disrespect to human dignity, racism, stereotypes,
  prejudice, discrimination, segregation, genocide,
  etc. have been some results of apartheid

50
Education as a Political Phenomenon

• South African Black social economic, and
  political life deemed fixed and natural by
  policy-makers
  
• Black education directed toward serving those ends

51
Quotes from educational authorities

• Which is really more important in the African
  villages todaypractical hygiene or ability to
  read? Elementary agriculture or geography? Wise
  recreation or arithmetic?
• What boots it to teach a man to read if he can
  never get a hold of a book? Why teach him the
  use of table-cloths and cutlery, if he cannot
  afford to buy them? Why teach him agriculture
  when all the arable land is already occupied?
• What is the use of teaching a Bantu child
  mathematics when it cannot use it in practice?
  That is absurd.

52
India

• Members of the lower castes have many
  restrictions placed upon them.
  

53
Lower castes are unable to

• Be served by clean Brahmans
• Be served by barbers, water-carriers, tailors,
  etc., who serve the caste Hindus
  
• Serve water to caste Hindus
• Enter Hindu temples.
• Use public conveniences, such as roads, ferries,
  wells or schools.
  
• Dissociate oneself from a despised occupation.

54
Castes, cont.

• Low caste Indians are in a hard position, as
  their life is determined by the caste they were
  born into. While there are a lucky few who are
  able to raise themselves up, most must live with
  what they were born, with little chance to change
  their lot in life.

55
Policies to Combat Discrimination
56
Brazil

• 1988 Federal Constitution
• Enactment of a series of laws that classify as a
  crime any act motivated by racial or color
  prejudice genocide and the destruction of
  national ethnic, racial or religious groups
  dissemination by any means of racial prejudice
  incitement of hatred or racial discrimination
  (defined as a crime against national security)
  acts of discrimination affecting provisions of
  services or access to public places

57
Brazil, cont.

• Sept. 1989 Special Coordinating Office for
  Issues relating to the Black Population (Sao
  Paulo)
  
• June 1993 Establishment of police divisions to
  specialize in racial crimes
  

58
South Africa

• Apartheid policy is over.
• Although there is no more legalized
  discrimination, it still exists.
  
• Along with political reform, social reform is now
  needed to become a truly integrated community.

59
Affirmative Action

• Employment Equity Act, No. 55 of 1998
• Despite this affirmative action act, certain
  court decisions have not supported act (e.g.
  Public Servants Association of SA and Others v.
  Minister of Justice and Others (1997))
• Decisions made unaware of the lack of sensitivity
  in using the apparatus of the former apartheid
  era as the benchmark for holding posts under the
  post-apartheid and pro-affirmative action regime

60
India

• In November 1948 the Indian Constituent Assembly
  adopted an article which made any disability for
  untouchables illegal.
  
• India has implemented a controversial policy
  intended to give disadvantaged groups preferences
  in employment and education.

61
On the basis of group membership, the government
can

• allocate seats in legislative bodies
• admit students into educational institutions and
  grant scholarships
  
• provide employment in government services
• make available various other entitlements to
  individuals
  

62
India- Who should receive the benefits?

• Each state has its own list of criteria for
  being a backward caste and while some states
  have been very selective in deciding what group
  qualifies as backward other states give the
  backward status to all non-Brahmin castes.

63
India- Conflicts

• Heads of institutions needing high skilled
  workers (e.g. hospitals, research organizations
  and universities) are worried that the need to
  employ certain caste members will leave them with
  workers unable to fulfill their duties.

64
Thus...

• Two positions for the same job are created - one
  for the allotted caste member and the other for
  a skilled worker.
  
• Problems arise on both sides, as one feels
  resentment for not having responsibility and the
  other resents the fact that they do the work
  without adequate compensation or recognition.

65

• The same issues surrounding the debate about
  affirmative action in the US applies to India.
  There are complaints of inefficiency, unfairness,
  and dumbing down of institutions.
• There is also intra group conflict about
  reservations being allocated fairly, and tensions
  mount when one ethnic group is allotted more
  reservations than another.

66
Conclusion

• Policies in these three countries now deem racial
  discrimination to be a crime
  
• The negative social attitudes and racially
  divided mindsets still exists to maintain a
  society divided along race or caste lines
  
• It takes more than laws to change these negative
  attitudes

67
References

• Burke, Pamela. Blacks in Brazil. 1997 (obtained
  on-line).
  
• Commission on Human Rights. Implementation of
  the Programme of Action for the Third Decade
  to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination.
  
• Fontaine, Pierre-Michel, ed. Race, Class, and
  Power in Brazil. Los Angeles. University of
  California. 1985.
  
• Hodges-Aeberhard, Jane. Affirmative Action in
  Employment Recent Court Approaches to a
  Difficult Concept International Labour Review.
  Vol. 138 (3). p. 247-72. 1999.
• Jansen, Jonathan D. Curriculum as a Political
  Phenomenon Historical Reflections on Black
  South African Education Journal of Negro
  Education. Vol. 59, Iss. 2 (1990). p. 195-206
• Onwuzurike, Chris Ama. Black People and
  Apartheid Conflict Journal of Black Studies.
  Vol. 18, Iss. 2 (1987), p.215-229.
  
• Sharma, Miriam. The Politics of Inequality.
  1978, The University Press of Hawaii
  
• Tumin, Melvin M. Comparative Perspectives on
  Race Relations. 1969Little, Brown, and
  Company
  
• Srinivas, M.N. Caste in Modern India.