American Psychological Association Symposium sponsored by Div. 6 and 47 Integrative Sport Psychology

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American Psychological Association Symposium
sponsored by Div. 6 and 47Integrative Sport
PsychologyIntegrative Athlete Assessment and
Interventions A Field-Tested Protocol

• Roland A. Carlstedt, Ph.D.
• Integrative Psychological Services of NYC
• American Board of Sport Psychology
• Capella University Harold Abel School of
  Psychology

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I. Critique of Prevalent Athlete Assessment and
Intervention Approaches

• Mired in a stagnant paradigm based on weak data
  and even myth
• Assessment and Intervention approaches are
  antiquated
• Indiscriminately administered
• Administered en masse
• Administered outside the realm of a coherent and
  integrative theoretical context
• Little is known about athlete responding and
  propensities
• Yet interventions are prescribed as though we
  really do
• Assessment and Interventions merely for the sake
  of doing something
• Failure to consider potent individual measures
  that have been shown to meditate
• ATTENTION, PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIVITY and
  COGNITION

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Despite promising theories of peak performance
little if any progress has been made in

• establishing group and individualized norms for
  attention,
• physiological and cognitive responding.
• developing standardized and ecologically valid
  protocols designed to measure and manipulate
  attention, cognitive processes and physiological
  responding.
• operationalizing and measuring psychological
  performance (e.g., Zone, or Flow states) beyond
  the level of self-report.
• isolating potent and ecologically valid outcome
  measures.
• creating psychological performance statistics
  allowing for reliable efficacy studies.
• widespread utilization of sophisticated
  procedures and instruments to gain better insight
  of athlete performance.

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II. Consequently, I advance the perspective that

• we must systematically investigate athlete
  responding in more ecologically valid competitive
  and training situations and longitudinally.
• the efficacy of an intervention must be
  established at the level of the individual
  athlete.
• individualized and normative databases need to be
  developed to guide and amend mental training
  efforts.
• practitioners must acquire greater knowledge of
  individual athlete responding.
• this latter endeavor should be a priority,
  superseding intervention attempts that all too
  often are applied haphazardly, without
  documentation and unequivocal demonstration of
  efficacy.

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• the practice of performance enhancement should be
  predicated on knowledge and not anecdote or
  conjecture.
• the failure to take athlete assessment and
  interventions to the next level will leave our
  field in the dust, mired in a stagnant paradigm
  that eventually will call the credibility of
  Applied Sport Psychology into question.
• it is no longer tenable to ignore or not engage
  in empirically based and systematic approaches to
  athlete assessment and interventions.
• while the field has produced a significant body
  of quality research, much of it stands alone,
  offering little practical guidance to
  practitioners that will assist them in engaging
  in a more sophisticated and scientific approach
  to applied sport psychology.
• the time has come to consider a new
  multidimensional and integrative approach to
  athlete assessment and interventions, one that
  utilizes sophisticated instruments, normative
  databases and empirically-based procedures to
  better assess athletes and document and analyze
  the effects of interventions on psychological
  performance.

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III. The protocol that I will present emanates
from research on the Theory of Critical Moments.

• The Theory of Critical Moments Proposes that
• Peak performance and mastery, as well as failure,
  is mediated by interactions of specifically
  isolated PRIMARY HIGHER ORDER (PHO) traits and
  behaviors that have been shown to be intimately
  linked to attention, physiological reactivity,
  cognition and motor performance, especially
  during crucial phases of competition, or CRITICAL
  MOMENTS when the impact of these measures will be
  the greatest.
• Consequently, interventions must consider an
  athletes constellation of PHO factors and
  temporal gradients associated with their
  administration to be effective.
• These measures include Hypnotic
  Susceptibility/Absorption, Emotionality
  (negative/positive affect neuroticism) and
  Repressive Coping.

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• Hypnotic Susceptibility (HS) is a
  psychophysiological trait that can manifest
  itself independent of hypnosis or hypnotic
  induction. It is a pervasive and omnipresent mode
  of information processing marked by intense focus
  on internal or external stimuli as well as
  surplus pattern recognition. I refer to hypnotic
  susceptibility as the ZONE or FLOW facilitator in
  that it is associated with similar descriptors
  that have been used to describe peak performance
  states, including intense concentration/focus,
  effortlessness, involuntariness, dissociation and
  freedom from distraction. HS can, however, be a
  double-edged sword in that intense and effortless
  focus can rapidly shift from stimuli to stimuli
  dependent upon a persons concurrent levels of
  neuroticism and repressive coping.

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• Emotionality, or negative/positive
  affect-neuroticism is a BIG-5 personality
  dimension that mediates a persons reactive
  tendencies to internal and external stimuli.
  Negative affect is associated with a
  catasptrophizing cognitive style and excessive
  levels of physiological reactivity even at
  baseline in the absence of apparent stressors or
  perception of threat. Negative affect/neuroticism
  can be thought of as the great disruptor of ZONE
  or FLOW states.

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• Repressive coping is a behavioral propensity
  characterized by the ability to ignore negative
  internal and external stimuli and cognitions as
  well as pain and physical symptoms. It is
  associated with enhanced self-esteem and
  confidence. Neurophysiologically, this measure
  has been shown to functionally disconnect the
  interhemispheric transfer of negative affect from
  the right to the left-brain hemisphere, which is
  thought to prevent intrusive cognitions from
  reaching consciousness and disrupting
  performance. As such, repressive coping can be
  viewed as the great moderator of ZONE or FLOW
  states.

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Emerging Evidence

• Constellations and/or interactions of these
  measures have explained up to 44 of the variance
  in the performance equation that can be
  attributed to psychological factors, as a linear
  function of increasing level of critical moments,
  an unprecedented finding. In other studies from
  the realm of behavioral medicine and clinical
  psychology up to 65 of the variance in a variety
  of clinical outcome measures related to
  attention, physiological reactivity, cognition,
  symptomology and treatment efficacy has been
  accounted for on the basis of constellations,
  interactions or individual measures in the above
  triad (Carlstedt, research in progress).

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VARIANCE EXLAINED AS FUNCTION OF LEVELof
Criticality of a Competitive Moment
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IV. Neuropsychophysiological Dynamics of PHO
Factors
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V. Implications of Findings and the Theory of
Critical Moments for Assessment and Interventions

• PHO factors appear to be crucially involved in
  mediating performance.
• Findings from research are consistent with
  predictions from the Theory of Critical Moments
  and in line with the neurophysiological and
  psychophysiological dynamics advanced by this
  model.
• It should also be noted that these findings are
  also consistent with components of Dietrichs
  Transient Hypofrontality Hypothesis.
• Neuropsychological, neurophysiological and
  cardiovascular psychophysiological measures are
  expected to not only reflect baseline states of
  reactivity or activation but also the effects of
  interventions. They are also hypothesized to
  reflect Zone or Flow states.
• Consequently, assessment and intervention
  strategies that are designed to document, predict
  and enhance performance need to address the above
  measures within a comprehensive and integrative
  athlete assessment and intervention battery.

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VI. The Carlstedt Protocol

• Step-by-Step Overview
• Assessment of PHO factors, Relative Cortical
  Activation and Neuropsychological/cognitive
  tendencies
• Instruments/tests Stanford Scale of Hypnotic
  Susceptibility Tellegen Absorption Scale
  Positive Affect/Negative Affect Schedule or
  Eysenck Personality Inventory Marlowe-Crowne
  Line-Bisecting Test (Drake Paradigm) Brain
  Resource Company Neurocognitive Battery for
  Athletes (Internet based test, analysis center
  and database).
• Off-the-field Psychophysiological Stress Test
• Instruments BioCom Technologies Heart Rate
  Monitoring Hard-and-Software Heart Rate
  Variability Software

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• On-field HRV/HRD Analysis
• Instruments Biocom Technologies/Brainquiry/Carlst
  edt HEART MINDER ambulatory heart activity
  monitoring and biofeedback device BioCom
  Technologies/Carlstedt Heart Rate Deceleration
  Software BioCom HRV Software.
• On-field HRV/HRD Analysis with Critical Moment
  Analysis (CMPPQ)
• Post Competition Data Analysis
• Instruments Heart Minder Internet Based Analysis
  and Database Center

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• Intervention Selection- Pre-Competition and
  On-the-Field
• Efficacy Testing-Intervention
• Mental Training using most efficacious
  Intervention
• Continual Monitoring-Data Bank

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Rationale for Protocol Assessment and
Intervention Strategy

• The Carlstedt Protocol is based on an initial
  assessment of PHO factors including hypnotic
  ability/absorption, neuroticism, repressive
  coping and relative cerebral laterality.
  Establishing a benchmark profile predicting
  psychophysiological propensities.

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• Once an athletes profile has been established,
  psychophysiological testing is used off and on
  the playing field. An initial Psychophysiological
  Stress Test (PST) is administered to determine if
  physiological reactivity in the
  laboratory/practice is consistent with what would
  be expected on the basis of an athletes
  constellation of PHO factors and cerebral
  laterality.

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• Thereafter, heart rate variability/heart rate
  deceleration responses are measured during both
  training and actual competition while analyzing
  physical/technical, tactical and statistical
  performance using the Carlstedt Critical Moment
  Psychological Profiency-Index (CCMPP-I)
  statistical analysis system for evaluating
  psychological performance during competition.

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• Assessment of physiological responding and
  psychological performance during actual
  competition are done in attempt to validate
  concurrently PST responses on the field. It is
  also carried out to determine the predictive
  validity of an athletes PHO factors relative to
  on-the-field performance and physiological
  responding.

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• Once a trait-like profile of psychophysiological
  reactivity/responsivity is established on the
  basis of longitudinally acquired data (at least
  3-5 complete measurement occasions) interventions
  are selected and implemented to modify responding
  in the desired direction.

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INTERVENTIONS INCLUDE

• Neurofeedback and on-the-field Manipulation of
  Cortical Activation
• Heart Rate Variability, RSA and EMG Biofeedback
  with Stimulus Manipulation (e.g., video viewing)
• RSA Biofeedback on-the-field
• Active-alert hypnosis
• Recovery hypnosis
• Mental Imagery
• Cognitive intervention

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• An important component of the Protocol is
  efficacy testing of interventions using the
  CCMPP-I system to determine the extent to which
  an intervention influences outcome
  (physical/technical, tactical, physiological or
  statistical success/won-loss outcome measures).

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• If an intervention appears to be ineffectual, it
  is usually supplanted with an alternative method
  until an ideal mental training modality is found.
  Thereafter, mental training is routinely engaged
  in as a prophylaxis in an attempt to optimally
  prepare an athlete for competition.

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• Mental training during actual competition
  includes affect monitoring and altering using
  cerebral laterality manipulation to activate the
  left-brain hemisphere prior to action (gaze
  manipulation, etc.) and during time-outs
  (line-bisecting test and PANAS schedule).
• Whenever possible, athletes are also monitored
  during actual competition and training.
• The acquired data are then analyzed, discussed
  with the athlete and coaches and stored.

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Rationale for Applying an Intervention

• The rationale for applying a specific
  intervention to an athlete can be traced to the
  research on the Theory of Critical Moments and
  Wickramasekeras High Risk Model of Threat
  Perception (1988) This research suggests that
  persons possessing specific PHO factors were more
  or less amenable to certain forms of treatment.
  Specifically it is proposed that

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• 1) Persons high in hypnotic ability/absorption
  who are more fantasy prone and imaginative
  compared to lows were found to benefit more from
  hypnosis and imagery-based interventions than
  therapies that are more reality based, such as
  rational-emotive psychotherapy and biofeedback.

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• SINCE A HIGH MAJORITY OF ATHLETES HAVE BEEN FOUND
  TO BE LOW IN ABSORPTION AND HYPNOTIC
  SUSCEPTIBILITY, MENTAL IMAGERY, THE MOST
  WIDESPREAD INTERVENTION MAY BE AN INTERVENTION
  THAT MOST ATHLETES WILL NOT BENEFIT FROM UNLESS
  ADMINISTERED IN THE CONTEXT OF INDIVIDUALIZED
  PROTOCOLS THAT CLOSELY MONITOR AND ANALYZE ITS
  EFFECTS.

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• 2) By contrast, individuals that are high in
  repressive coping who are more skeptical and
  reality-oriented than lows, benefited more from
  biofeedback, a modality providing objective
  feedback about mind-body interactions they would
  otherwise not believe or tend to ignore.

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• 3) Those who were low in hypnotic
  ability/absorption were less likely to benefit
  from hypnosis and imagery and instead were also
  more likely to benefit from biofeedback, whereas
  individuals low in repressive coping were found
  to be more amenable to hypnosis and imagery
  provided that they were not also low in hypnotic
  ability/absorption.
• Individuals exhibiting a more rare constellation
  of high hypnotic ability/absorption and high
  repressive coping were considered good candidates
  for both hypnosis/imagery and biofeedback.

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An Appeal to Practitioners

• In this era of high-technology replete with
  psychophysiological monitoring devices and
  sophisticated computer analysis, it is no longer
  tenable to administer interventions that have not
  been tested for reliability, validity and
  efficacy.
• All Sport Psychology practitioners should be
  trained in psychophysiology and biofeedback and
  equiped to monitor and assess the
  psychophysiology of athletes and teams or access
  consultants who are

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Contributing to the Development of a New Paradigm
in Assessment and Intervention

• An Internet-Based Athlete Assessment, Analysis,
  Intervention and Database Center
• Your Personal Sport Psychology Consultant and
  Researcher

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Why is there a need?

• Speculative comments, analyses and advice
  regarding the mental side of the game are just as
  common among Sport Psychologists as they are
  among the laity.

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Psycho-babble or the Basis of a Scientific Sport
Psychology?

• mental toughness, motivation, focus, zone, mental
  training just do it, etc.

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• Although the above constructs and notions may
  indeed form the basis of certain aspects of sport
  performance when used in the context of
  pop-psychological analyses, they are wanting as
  to their meaning.

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• Essentially, the field of Sport Psychology has
  fed these meaningless slogans, platitudes and
  notions to the masses, such that coaches,
  athletes and analysts have bought into many myths
  and methods advanced by the field as though they
  are the GOSPEL!

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• However, without systematically delineating the
  mental components of the performance equation and
  operationalizing the pet slogans of Sport
  Psychology, coaches, athletes, teams and analysts
  have little of empirical value to draw on and
  utilize when it comes to making decisions about
  athletes

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• In contrast to the physical and technical game
  about which there is an abundance
• of scientific information and data along with
  huge volumes of actual objective performance
  statistics (especially in the sports of baseball,
  football and basketball), when it comes to the
  mental side of the game, there is a paucity of
  valid and reliable information about its
  dynamics.

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• Consequently, potentially revealing measures such
  as zone, focus, and mental toughness have
  devolved instead of evolving into potent
  constructs and sensitive measures of
  psychological performance. They have become
  misused and even abused terms that are thrown
  about with impunity. At face value they mean
  nothing.

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• Essentially, the assessment of psychological
  performance, mental training and ultimately
  decision making regarding an athletes mental
  game and predictions of future performance are
  often based on anecdotal speculation instead of
  good science.

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• If the field of Sport Psychology is to make
  inroads into professional sports and provide all
  athletes the best possible service and methods a
  paradigm shift pertaining to the assessment and
  mental training needs to occur. It must be based
  on rigorous scientific approaches and methods,
  similar to those seen in the clinical realm where
  major advances have been made pertaining to
  patient diagnosis and treatment.

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• New approaches to athlete evaluation must produce
  meaningful and useful information regarding an
  athletes psychological performance that has a
  high degree of validity and reliability.

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• Just as a professional scout or coach knows an
  athletes vertical jumping ability, foot speed,
  performance average, technical propensities,
  body-fat index and oxygen uptake, the time has
  come to develop individualized normative
  databases on psychological and neuropsychophysiolo
  gical functioning in athletes for assessment,
  comparative and intervention purposes.

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• Practitioners should know an athletes attention
  threshold, brain processing speed and reaction
  time, emotional reactivity, critical moment
  psychological proficiency, heart rate
  variability and deceleration response
  parameters, and movement related brain-macro
  potential readings among other important
  performance components if they are to effectively
  advise athletes, coaches and teams.

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• The era of merely telling athletes to relax or
  just imagine or shut out all negative
  thoughts is passé. A new era needs to emerge in
  which slogans like just relax are
  operationalized in terms of generating more high
  frequency heart rate variability prior to
  critical moments, or increasing focus would
  involve engaging in neurofeedback to achieve a
  higher attention threshold. Rather than tell an
  athlete to shut out negative thoughts, athletes
  would be taught to manipulate relative brain
  hemispheric activation to suppress intrusive
  thoughts.

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• The current cliché laden just do it approach
  needs to be replaced with methods that define
  many of the nebulous constructs that pervade
  Sport Psychology today. It is time to delineate
  Hanins (1980) theory and postulates using
  instruments and methodologies that allow us to
  measure the states of intensity or physiological
  reactivity to which his theory refers.

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• It is no longer tenable for ANY practitioner
  delving in the arena of Sport Psychology to speak
  in nebulous terms such as he doesnt
  concentrate or shes a choker, or hes not
  mentally tough or recommend interventions just
  because they are the thing to do. Youve got to
  visualize or get your intensity up, as slogans
  to somehow involve a person in mental training
  are insufficient.

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• Athletes and coaches need to be provided with
  standardized measures and parameters of sport
  relevant psychological and neuropsychophysiologica
  l functioning. The time has come for
  practitioners to use new language that is based
  on empirically derived data and
  operationalizations of psychological processes
  and their effects on performance.

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• Advanced technology and methodologies are
  available to lift Applied Sport Psychology to a
  new level of sophistication and credibility, they
  just have to be used.

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The Athlete Neuropsychophysiological Performance
Database Project and Internet-based Psychological
Assessment and Performance Center
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• While I recognize that most practitioners do not
  have specialized training in Psychophysiology,
  Neuropsychology and ambulatory assessment and
  monitoring the advent of chip technology has
  given rise to numerous products that can be used
  by practitioners, coaches and athletes. These
  devices can be used to gather data, analyze it
  and even entrain ideal neuropsychophysiological
  states at home and more recently on-the-field.

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• Consequently, I am advocating that ALL Sport
  Psychology practitioners participate in an
  international, controlled and standardized
  protocol designed to create a normative database
  of neuropsychophysiological functioning in
  athletes for off-the-field baseline conditions
  and tasks, on-the-field during real training and
  competition and during critical moments of
  competition. The project is multifaceted and will
  be easily accessible to practitioners and
  athletes.

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• Central to the NPAD project is the Brain Resource
  Company (BRC) neuropsychological test battery and
  quantitative electroencephalography (qEEG) brain
  functioning analysis protocol. In the clinical
  world, the BRC approach to the establishment of
  normative brain databases is emerging as one of
  the most valid and reliable indices of cortical
  functioning, primarily because of the rigorously
  controlled and administered protocol the BRC
  adheres to.

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• As the athlete-specific database evolves it is
  expected that clear tendencies in brain
  functioning will emerge that will distinguish
  athletes in terms of psychological performance
  and that some of the findings and hypotheses on
  cortical functioning in athletes that I present
  in my new book will be concurrently validated on
  the basis of multiple neurophysiological measures
  and markers the BRC protocol captures.

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• The BRC approach is also intended to flexible and
  dynamic and will evolve to include new measures
  of athlete-relevant cortical functioning on the
  basis of the initial database findings. An
  in-the-field database neuropsychological protocol
  will also be developed in phase II of the BRC
  project.

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• The APAPC project is an applied field study
  approach to the assessment and evaluation of
  athletes. It is separate from the BRC database
  project, yet complimentary and predicated on the
  ecological validity of monitoring procedures and
  data generation.

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• Participating practitioners or individual
  athletes will have access to a new and
  sophisticated ambulatory monitoring device that
  was jointly developed by BraInquiry, Biocom
  Technologies and myself. The device is capable of
  monitoring various measures including heart rate
  variability, EEG, Galvanic Skin Response,
  EMG-muscle tension. The APAPC project will
  primarily focus on HRV using an adapted version
  of the BraInquiry Personal Efficiency Trainer
  (PET) containing BioCom Technologies advanced
  HRV analysis software, called the Heart-Minder.

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• This device is capable of acquiring continuous
  data for up to eighteen hours and can be used
  during training and competition to assess and
  enhance psychological performance. The
  Heart-Minder is linked to an internet-based data
  analysis center. Participants in this project
  will upload data to the internet data center for
  analysis and report generation. Acquired data
  will also be used to extend on my own and BioCom
  Technologies existing HRV and heart rate
  deceleration databases for athletes, normal and
  clinical samples.

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• Practitioners and athletes will receive a
  customized report along with recommendations for
  mental training and comparative norms.
  Practitioners who are specially trained in this
  protocol will also have access to personal
  computer-based analysis software for in-office
  evaluation and mental training purposes.

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• The advent of the Heart-Minder, PET and internet
  data analysis center go a long way toward
  removing barriers associated with ambulatory
  monitoring and high-tech assessment of athletes
  (see Carlstedt, 2002). The device is quite small,
  powerful in its data acquirement and analysis
  capabilities and is linked to a professional
  support team and center. Moreover, the device has
  biofeedback capabilities that allows for
  in-the-field mental training and self-regulation
  interventions.

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• The BRC protocols allow for highly valid and
  reliable analyses of brain functioning that is
  relevant to sport performance. The BRC brain
  analysis battery includes measures of executive
  functioning, subliminal cognitive and emotional
  processing, responding and reaction time tasks
  measured at the level of the brain, comprehensive
  EEG activity (qEEG) and central nervous system
  reactivity to select stimuli.

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• Although such a high-tech approach to athlete
  assessment and intervention may seem complex and
  inaccessible to the average practitioner, it need
  not be and thus should be sought by any
  professional sport organization, coach, athlete
  or practitioner who is serious about the
  psychological side of the game. It is inexcusable
  and perhaps even unethical for practitioners to
  continue to advocate and use a paradigm that does
  not test its methods for efficacy or use the most
  advanced and sophisticated approaches available.
  One can think of issues of practice and
  competency using the following analogy.

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• For example, if a Psychologist or Psychiatrist in
  the course of routine therapy, upon hearing that
  a patient had chronic headaches, merely dismissed
  the complaint and failed to refer the patient for
  further assessment from a Neurologist, he or she
  would be considered negligent and liable were the
  patient to die of a brain tumor. Just because a
  practitioner does not have access to an MRI
  machine, let alone know how to use it or evaluate
  a brain scan, doesnt mean he or she should not
  seek out experts who use this advanced
  technology.

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• Similarly, just because a practitioner does not
  have high-tech equipment to assess brain
  functioning or heart rate variability in athletes
  or do efficacy studies on applied interventions
  does not mean he or she should not seek out
  specialists who can. The argument that it is not
  necessary to validate the effects of
  interventions or basic assessments in athletes is
  becoming increasingly tenuous as more research
  comes to light attesting to the utility and
  benefits of advanced and technologically
  sophisticated assessment, monitoring and mental
  training methods.

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• The above multifaceted and high-tech approach to
  applied Sport Psychology offers athletes, coaches
  and teams access to cutting edge scientific
  methods and technology that will illuminate
  psychological performance as never before.

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• Interested practitioners and athletes are invited
  to participate in this internet database and
  analysis project. Doing so will help the field of
  Sport Psychology generate normative data on the
  psychological performance of athletes as well
  assist practitioners in providing coaches and
  athletes the most advanced approach to assessment
  and mental training intervention available.

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• For more information on this project please visit
  the American Board of Sport Psychology website
  at www.americanboardofsportpsychology.org. A
  portal or link to the project website can be
  found there.
• You can also email Dr. Roland A. Carlstedt at
  DrRCarlstedt_at_aol.com or contact or call
  212-860-8500 (ext. 25) or 917-680-3994 to learn
  how to participate in this groundbreaking project.

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References

• Carlstedt, R.A. (2004). Critical moments during
  competition A mind-body model of sport
  performance when it counts the most. NY
  Psychology Press.
• Carlstedt, R.A. (2004) Line-bisecting performance
  in highly skilled athletes Does rightward error
  reflect unique cortical functioning and
  organization. Brain and Cognition, 54, 52-57.
• Wickramasekera, I. (1988) Clinical behavioral
  medicine. NY Plenum.

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About the Author

• Roland A. Carlstedt, Ph.D. is a Licensed
  Psychologist and Sport Psychologist. He directs
  Integrative Psychological Services of NYC.
• His clinical specialties are Behavioral
  Medicine, Health Psychology and Applied
  Psychophysiology and Biofeedback. Dr. Carlstedt
  is the Director of Sport Psychology Research
  Heart and Brain Processes with BioCom
  Technologies and a Consultant to the Brain
  Resource Company. He is a member of the Capella
  University Harold Abel School of Psychology and
  Chairman and Head Mentor of the American Board of
  Sport Psychology. A former Professional Tennis
  Player and Coach he worked on the ATP/WTA tennis
  tours fulltime for over ten years. He is the
  recipient of the American Psychological
  Association Division 47 2001 Dissertation Award.
  His dissertation was also nominated for the
  Society for Neurosciences 2001 Donald Lindsley
  Dissertation Award.