Title: The Collapse of Christian Europe
1The Collapse of Christian Europe
2Third Phase The Crusades
- The Crusades aroused suspicion and ultimately
violence between the East and West as Latins
(Franks) established kingdoms in the East. - Ultimately, the final break between East and West
was the fourth Crusade for which only recently
(2001) Pope John Paul II apologized.
3Origins of the Crusades
- The rise of the Seljuk Turks, who captured
Jerusalem in 1070, worried the Byzantine Empire. - They appealed to the Roman west for assistance as
they reported the persecution of Christians and
desecration of holy places. - The West was eager to help for a number of
reasons, including piety, wealth and land.
4Pope Urban II
- In 1095, Pope Urban II at the Council of
Claremont in France declared a general indulgence
to all who would take up a holy pilgrimage
against the Islamic infidels. - He demonized Islam demon worshippers
- Accused Muslims of atrocities (forced
circumcision, destruction of churches, bizarre
tortures)
5Indulgence
- Crusaders would wear the sign of the cross on
their armor/garments. - Whoever died on the pilgrimage would have
immediate remission of sin and have a martyrs
entrance into heaven. - They could keep what they conquered as the
spoils of Egypt.
6Major Crusades
- First (1096) Knights from France, England and
Germany recaptured Jerusalem in 1099 and
established the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. - Second (1147-49) Louis VII of France and Conrad
III of the Holy Roman Empire attempted to regain
territory in Asia Minor but were decimated and
Saladin recaptured all lost territory except for
Tyre. - Third (1189-92) Emperor Frederick, Philip II of
France and Richard I of England failed to regain
Jerusalem though they retook Cyprus and held Acre
on the coast of Palestine. - Fourth (1202-04) The crusaders stopped at
Constantinople, sacked it and established a Latin
kingdom which existed untill 1261. - Fifth (1228-1244) Regained Jerusalem and then
lost it again. By 1291 all Crusader lands in the
East were lost (Acre was the last Crusader city).
7The First Crusade
8Disastrous Crusades
- Peasants Crusadeimmediately after Urban IIs
speech in Claremont, a grassroots movement headed
for the East of 10,000 men. Ultimately, they
were annihilated by the Turks outside of
Constantinople. - Childrens Crusade (1212)20,000 children
journeyed to the East. Many died on the way, but
those who reached Marseilles in France were
offered free passage to Palestine. Instead they
were drowned or enslaved in Tunisia or Egypt.
9Other Significant Crusades
- The expulsion of Islam from the Spanish peninsula
in 1492. - Extension of Christianity into the Baltic region.
- Danish Crusade into Prussia
- Swedish Crusade into Lithuania.
- Constant Persecution of the Jews in Europe in the
context of this crusading spirit. - Crusades Against Heretics in regions of Western
Europe.
10Net Effect of Crusades
- Crusades changed Muslim perceptions of Christians
who were now perceived negatively as land-hungry
and cruel barbarians very different from
themselves. - Crusades encouraged commercial activity to the
East, but ultimately it was Muslim scholars who
influenced the West more through Spain and
Sicily. - Crusades brought confusion to the Byzantine
empire and hastened its demise as well as
distracting Western European rulers from their
real problems at home. The militarism of the
Crusades weakened the Byzantine Empire. - The Crusades enhanced the prestige as well as
spiritual and political power of the Papacy.
11Relation of Byzantine and Roman Churches Early in
the Crusades
- Byzantine at times supported the Crusaders though
the Crusaders often thought they were betrayed by
them. - Crusaders installed Latin Patriarchs at Antioch
and Jerusalem. - Local believers did not accept the Latin
Patriarch and there was a local schism in the
church at Antioch. - Rival bishops claimed the same throne and the
division between East and West was cleartwo
hostile congregations existed in the same city.
12The Fourth Crusade (1201-1204)
- It was originally designed to conquer Jerusalem
through an invasion of Egypt. Instead, it sacked
Constantinople and set up a Latin Kingdom. - In 1198, Pope Innocent III called for a new
crusadewestern Europe ignored him. But some
Germans, French and Italians were interested. - The Crusaders approached Venice for assistance.
- Venice agreed to build ships to transport 33,000
Crusaders and 4,500 horses at a set price, but
only 12,000 Crusaders came to Venice.
13Problem
- The Crusaders, however, could not pay the
Venetians for the boats and the Venetians
barricaded them on the island of Lido. - Venice proposed that the Crusaders attack Zara in
Dalmatia (under the protection of Hungary) to
acquire the needed money and as partial payment
since Venice claimed the city as its own. Some
refused, but the Papal legate endorsed the
proposal. - Innocent III, however, excommunicated the
Crusaders for their attack on the city of Zara.
14Constantinople
- The deposed Emperor Issac II Angelus son,
Alexius, conspired with the Crusaders to topple
the new Emperor Alexis III. - He promised money, restoration of communion with
Rome through submission to its primacy, and to
join the Crusade to Egypt. - The Crusaders went from Zara to Constantinople
though some soldiers refused to participate. - The fleet arrived in June, 1203 and installed
Alexius as Emperor (Alexius IV).
15Problem
- Alexius IV melted valuable icons in order to
extract gold and silver. This was desecration in
the eyes of the public. - Crusaders were responsible for the Great Fire
that destroyed 1/5 of Constantinople in 1204. - Alexius IV was assassinated and in reprisal the
Crusaders sacked the city for three days. Roman
clergy encouraged the Crusaders by telling them
that the Greeks were worse than Jews. - A new Latin Kingdom in Constantinople was divided
between Venice and the Germans. None of them ever
made it to the Holy Land. - They also installed a Latin Patriarch of
Constantinoplebut both the kingdom and Patriarch
were regained by the Greeks in 1261.
16Innocent III to the Crusaders
- "You vowed to liberate the Holy Land but you
rashly turned away from the purity of your vow
when you took up arms not against Saracens but
Christians The Greek Church has seen in the
Latins nothing other than an example of
affliction and the works of Hell, so that now it
rightly detests them more than dogs. - In both 2001 and 2004, Pope John Paul II
expressed regret and distress over the incident.
17The Psychology of 1204
- Westerns do not recognize how deep the
psychological hurt is over the sack of
Constantinople in 1204. - It engendered or confirmed intense national
hatredindignation against western aggression and
sacrilege. - Both East and West looked upon each other as
profane and ungodly. - Barlaam of Clabria told a papal court in 1339
what separates the Greeks from you is not so
much a difference in dogma as the hatred of the
Greeks for the Latins brought on by the wrongs
they have suffered.
18The Great Schism 858-1204
- East
- Greek Language
- Classical Culture
- Original Nicene Creed
- Icons
- Mystical Emphasis
- A Cappella Music
- Patriarch Petrarchy
- Leavened Bread
- Vernacular Liturgy
- Communion/Theosis
- West
- Latin Language
- Germanic Culture
- Filioque Addition
- Statues and Altars
- Legal Emphasis
- Musical Instruments
- Roman Primacy
- Unleavened Bread
- Latin Liturgy
- Penance/Forgiveness
19Attempt at Reunion ICouncil of Lyons (1274)
- Emperor Michael VIII (1259-1282), who recovered
Constantinople in 1261, took the initiative for
union. - Michael wanted support from Pope Gregory X
against Charles of Anjou who ruled Sicily. - A Council met in 1274 in Lyons, France.
- Orthodox representatives agreed to recognize
- Papal claims, and
- Filioque
20Reunion Rejected
- The clergy and laity, of both Constantinople and
Bulgaria, fiercely opposed the conditions of
reunion. - The Emperors sister said Better that that my
brothers Empire should perish than the purity of
the Orthodox faith. - The union was formally repudiated by Michaels
successor and Michael was denied a Christian
burial for his apostasy.
21Pope Nicholas III
- He sought compliance to the Council of Lyon
through legates sent to Constantinople in 1278. - Nicholas wrote to his legates unity of faith
does not permit diversity in its confessors or in
confessionespecially in the chanting of the
symbolThe Roman church, after due deliberation,
desires that the symbol be chanted uniformly with
the addition of the filioque by both Latins and
Greeks. - Also the patriarch and rest of the clergy of
every fortress, village, or any other place, all
and each singly, recognize, accept, and confess
with a sworn oath the truth of the faith and
primacy of the Roman church. - Further the Greek clergy were to seek from Rome
the reconfirmation of their offices.
22Attempt at Reunion IICouncil of Florence
(1438-1439)
- This was attended by Emperor John VIII
(1425-1448) and the Patriarch of Constantinople
as well as representatives (or proxies) of all
the Eastern Patriarchs. - Even Isidore, Metropolitan of Kiev and all
Russia, attended the Council. - It had the potential of a truly ecumenical
council (even according to Eastern standards). - There were intense theological debates and
discussions, and a genuine attempt was made at
reunion.
23Occasion of the Council
- The Byzantine Empire had been severely weakened
by the Latin Crusades and Kingdom of 1204-1261. - Byzantium endured two major civil wars in the
1320s and in the 1350s. - The Turks conquered Serbia and Bulgaria. They
established a capital in Adrianople in 1365. - In 1387 Byzantium became a vassal of the Turks.
24Agreement at the Council
- Mutuality was rooted in two primary concerns
- Consensus on doctrine
- Respect for legitimate rites and traditions of
each. - The Agreement
- The East accepted filioque
- The East accepted the doctrine of purgatory
- East and West accepted diversity on Eucharistic
bread, though unleavened bread was encouraged. - The East accepted papal claims to primacy (though
the language is rather ambiguous).
25Failed Reunion
- While the last two Emperors (John VIII and
Constantine XIthe 80th from Constantine)
maintained the agreement and were supported by
Patriarchs of Constantinople (though not formally
declared till 1452) - popular piety rejected it (one Patriarch fled the
city in fear) - most monks opposed it
- The hero of Orthodoxy was Mark of Ephesus (died
1444). He defended Orthodoxy at the Council,
refused to sign it, and opposed it upon his
return to his episcopal See. He led the
opposition to the Council (even suffering
imprisonment). - Grand Duke Lucas Notaras remarked I would
rather see the Muslim turban in the midst of the
city than the Latin cross.
26Russia Rejects the Union
- Isidore, Metropolitan of Kiev and all of Russia,
signed the union decree. - Previously, Isidore had been an envoy to the
West. - Isidore was appointed by the Patriarch of
Constantinople in 1437 despite the selection of
Jonas (a Russian) by a synod of Russian bishops
and Grand Prince Basil II. - Isidore returned to Moscow in 1441.
- Isidore led a procession into the city with the
Latin cross, prayed for Pope Eugenius before the
Patriarch of Constantinople, and read the
proclamation of union. - Isidore was appointed a Cardinal in the Western
church. - Grand Prince Basil rejects the union along with
the Russian clergy. - In 1448, Basil appoints his own Metropolitan
elected by Russian bishops.
27The Fall of Constantinople (1453)
- Despite the union, the West did not offer any
military assistance to the Constantinople. - After a seven week siege, the Turks entered the
city on May 29. - The last Christian service was held at Hagia
Sophia that morningRoman Catholics and Orthodox
both present. - The Emperor received communion that morning and
then died on the walls of the city as he led his
army in defense of Constantines city. - Hagia Sophia became a mosquetoday it is a
museum. - The Turks installed a new Patriarch (Gennadios
Scholarius) in the city and his first act was to
renounce the Union.
28Russian Autocephalcy
- From 988 to 1237, the Russian Metropolitans
(bishops) were almost wholly Greek and selected
by Constantinople. - From 1237 to 1332, the Russian Metropolitans were
half Greek and half Russianbut still selected by
Constantinople. - Kiev was sacked by the Mongols in 1240 and the
center of Russian Christianity moved north. - From 1332 to 1448, the Russian Metropolitans were
all Greek. - From to 1448 till the present, however, the
Russian Metropolitans were Russianand selected
without reference to Constantinople. - Russia had rejected the union of the Council of
Florence and regarded Constantinople as apostate. - Suspicion, and even hostility, would characterize
the relationship between Moscow and the Greek
Orthodox Church for several centuries.
29St. Sergius of Radonezh (1314-1392)
- The pattern of his life follows that of St.
Anthony in the desert of Egypt. - Despite noble birth, he lived and dressed as a
peasant. I came to see a prophet, said one
visitor, and you show me a beggar. - The Monastery of the Holy Trinity was founded in
the vast woods outside of Moscow. - He became an explorer, colonist and missionary
- 40 other monasteries were founded during Sergius
lifetime and evangelized the northern parts of
Russia. - Sergius also encouraged the Grand Dukes of Russia
and was a spiritual advisor to them. The
Muscovite princes defeated the Mongols for the
first time in a major battle at Kulikovo (1380).
Sergius had blessed the Russian Prince Dmitry
Donskoy prior to the battle.
30Third Rome?
- I wish to add a few words on the present
Orthodox Empire of our ruler he is on earth the
sole Emperor (Tsar) of the Christians, the leader
of the Apostolic Church which stands no longer in
Rome or in Constantinople, but in the blessed
city of Moscow. She alone shines in the whole
world brighter than the sunAll Christian Empires
are fallen and in their stead stands alone the
Empire of our ruler in accordance with the
Prophetical books. Two Romes have fallen, but the
third stands and a fourth there will not be. - Philotheus of Pskov to Tsar Basil III (1510)
31Third Rome?
- While the Moscow Metropolitan became a Patriarch
in 1589, the See has never ranked higher than the
Petrarchy which is established in the Ecumenical
councils. - The Orthodox church as a whole has never
recognized Moscow as a third Rome in the sense
of a legal successor to the Emperor and Patriarch
of Constantinople. - Instead it is part of the embedded eccesiology of
Orthodox that no single bishop has legal primacy
but only ranks of honor.
32The Hesychast Controversy
- This was a controversy in which the West played
no role. In fact, the West regarded the debate as
one of the speculative or meaningless debates
of Eastern mysticism. - However, it is central to understanding the
nature of Eastern mysticism and its understanding
of God.
33Mystical Theology
- The roots of Eastern mysticism are found in the
Alexandrians (Clement and Origen from 200-250)
but also in the Cappodocian Fathers (Gregory of
Nyssa in particular). - This root is apophatic theologythe way of
negation but also the way of union. - The way of negation provides an open door for
union with Goda mystical knowledge of God. - This combination of negation and union is called
hesychast (Greek word that means quiet). - A hesychast is one who devotes himself to inner
recollection and prayer.
34The Prayer of the Heart
- St. Marcarius of Egypt (300-390) stressed the
prayer of the heart where heart refers to the
whole personbody and soul. - Three stages of prayerattained by the grace of
God. - Prayer of the lipsthe recitation
- Prayer of the intellectthe recollection/reflectio
n - Prayer of the heartthe power of dwelling in the
heart as if spontaneously offered by the whole
person when the prayer fills the whole
consciousness
35The Jesus Prayer
- Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me
a sinner. - It was used as early as Diadochus of Photice
(450s) and popularized by St. John Climacus of
Mount Sinai (579-649). - By the 13th century, this prayer was linked with
certain physical practices that were designed to
further concentration - Head bowed
- Chin resting on the chest
- Eyes fixed on the heart
36Grace For Union
- For Hesychasts the Jesus prayer is a means to an
endit is a gracious gift of God through which
believers may experience union with God. - St. Symeon the New Theologian (949-1022) speaks
continually of the divine light or the fire
uncreated and invisible, without beginning and
immaterial. - Hesychasts believed the light so experienced is
identical with the transfiguring light that the
disciples experience in Jesus Transfiguration.
37Orthodoxy Greek or Mystical?
- Barlaam the Calabarian, influenced by Greek
classicism, argued that God can only be known or
experienced indirectly. - He believed that the Hesychasts had violated the
principle of apophatic theology and reduced their
Jesus prayer to a materialistic mechanism for
capturing the divine light. - He accused them of making God a material
objectsomething created human beings could see
with their own eyes.
38The Problem
- How can one reconcile apophatic theology with
mystical theology? - If God is only known through negation, how can
God be directly experienced? - St. Gregory Palamas (1296-1359), Archbishop of
Thessalonica, was the great defender of the
Hesychasts.
39Important Distinctions
- Distinction between the Essence of God and the
Energies (work) of God. - Humanity was made for communion and theosisit
belongs to human nature to experience God. - This creaturely status includes the human body as
part of the whole person. - The Incarnation means the God has made the flesh
an inexhaustible source of sanctification.
Christ took human flesh and saved the whole
human, and the whole person (body and soul) prays
to God.
40Resolving the Tension
- St. Basil of Ceasarea We know God from His
energies, but we do not claim that we draw near
to His essence. For his energies come down to
us, but His essence remains unapproachable. - God, through his energies, reveals himself but
the energies are not something separate from God
but God in action. - The energies (the grace of God) is the personal
communion between God and humanitya direct
relationship. - Thus, we know God in his energies, but not in his
essence. By theosis (involving mystical
communion) we experience the eschatological
transfiguration of the soul (encountering the
divine light).
41Eastern Mysticism
- it It safeguards
- Gods Transcedence (we do not become identified
with the essence or being of God) therefore, it
is not a form of pantheism. - Human deification (theosis) where human can
fulfill the vocation for which God create
humanity. - This mysticism is also
- ChristologicalJesus grounds this union with God.
- Sacramentalthe sacraments are a means to this
union - Ecclesialthe liturgy is the comunal experience
of this union.
42Babylonian Captivity (1309-1374)
- Frances Philip IV kidnapped Boniface VIII
(1294-1303), and ultimately ensured the election
of a French Archbishop as Clement V (1305-14). - In 1309, Clement V settled in Avignon rather than
Rome. - All seven Popes at Avignon were French and most
of the Cardinals had French sees.
43The Avignon Papacy
- Benedict XI, 1303-1304
- Clement V, 1305-1314
- John XXII, 1316-1334 (Taught it was heresy to
teach that Jesus or apostles were poor) - Secular view of papacy
- Devised 200 new methods to raise money
44Avignon Papacy
- Due to the lack of revenues from the Papal States
in Italy, the Papacy sought to increase monetary
interests in other ways. - Church taxation was increased. Edward III of
England commented that the Pope was supposed to
lead the Lords sheep to pasture, not to fleece
them. - On a single day in 1328, the Avignon Papacy
excommunicated 5 archbishops, 30 bishops and 46
abbots for defaulting on their ecclesiastical
taxes. - This encouraged corruption and institutional
insensitivity as the Papacy grew wealthier. - Some sees were left vacant so that the money
would go directly to the Papacy rather than
through the hands of another official.
45The Great Schism
- Gregory XI (1370-78) returned the papacy to Rome
in 1377 and died two months later. - The new Pope, Urban VI, was Italian. The French
cardinals declared his election invalid and
elected Clement VII as a rival Pope. Urban VI
then installed his own curia. - Urban VI was recognized by the Holy Roman Empire
(Germany), England, Netherlands, Poland and
Portugal. - Clement VII was recognized by France, Castile,
Aragon, Scotland, Austria and Luxembourg.
46The Conciliar Movement
- Called to resolve problem of two popes
- Council of Pisa convened 1409
- Called on two popes to resign
- Appointed Alexander V, who died
- Appointed John XXIII, no spirituality
- Italian pope Gregory XII refused to resign
- French pope Benedict XIII refused to resign
- Now three popes!
47Time Line for Three Popes
48Council of Constance, 1414-15
- Broader base of support
- Ordered all three popes deposed
- Arrested and imprisoned John XXIII
- Gregory XII resigned
- Emperor Sigismund asked Benedict
- Benedict refused, 1417 deposed
- Council elected Martin V
- Condemned and executed John Hus
49Condemnation of Jan Hus
50Councilarism
- Council of Constance (1414-15) asserted the
authority of Councils over Popes. - This holy Council of Constancedeclaresthat it
has its authority immediately from Christ, and
that all men of every rank and condition,
including the Pope himself, are bound to obey
it in matters concerning the Faith, the abolition
of the schism, and the reformation of the Church
of God. - They elected a new Pope (Martin V) and all agreed
to it. - They dictated that Councils should held in five,
then seven and then every ten years. - However, it took no action to reform the church,
particularly papal taxations.
51Council of Basel, 1431-1449
- Called by Martins successor, Eugenius IV
- To deal with unresolved matter of reform
- Met for 20 fruitless years
- Eugenius resented council authority
- Pulled out, set up rival council at Ferrara
- Later moved to Florence
- Council elected a rival pope
52Council of Ferrara-Florence
- Many members of Basel Council joined
- Dealt with reunion of Greek Latin churches
pronounced but not recognized - French king called council at Bourges
- Charles VII
- Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, 1438
- Made French church autonomous
- Pragmatic Sanction of Mainz, 1439
- Concordat of 1482 freed Spanish church
53New Papal Authority
- By the Council of Basel (1431-49), the
councilarists believed that the church should be
governed by a perpetual council. - However, the Pope called a rival council in
Florence (1438-45) on the pretense of union with
the Byzantine church. - By 1460, Pope Pius II issued a Papal bull that
forbade appeals above the Pope to the authority
of any future council. - The church was left unreformed at all levels
(regular, secular, lower clergies) the church
experienced corruption (e.g., simony, immorality,
exploitation, absenteeism, pluralism, use of
pardoners).
54Unresolved issues
- Who controls church? Pope or council?
- What about church reform?
- Church-state relations?
- Individual Christian freedom security
- But one pope located again in Rome
- Only one remaining alternative Revolt!