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Title: Introduction to crop cultivation College of agronomy


1
Introduction to crop cultivation
  • College of agronomy, Sichuan agricultural
    university
  • Professor Yang Wen-Yu

2
Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1
Characters, tasks and research methods of crop
cultivation
  • Character and task of crop cultivation
    As an application science, crop cultivation is
    to research the law of crop development,formation
    of yield and quality, the relationships between
    them and circumstances,and technology. The
    science will make great progress in increasing
    yield, stabilizing production , improving quality
    , high performance,ecology and security.Crop
    cultivation is to develop the potentiality of
    variety by means of artificial combination of
    variety and method .

3
  • To accomplish the task of cultivation, we
    should master a series of knowledge about crop
    cultivation. Firstly, knowledge firmly relative
    to crop, circumstance, method secondly,
    knowledge about what conditions crops need. We
    should know how to choose and create proper
    circumstances to meet with the request of crops.
    All these are critical questions of rational crop
    distribution according to local situations and
    crops. So to master these cultivation techniques
    and apply fit method will help to control crop
    development , yield and quality formation.
  • Characters and research methods of crop
    cultivation
  • Characters Complexity , seasonal, regional ,
    fluctuation
  • Research methods bio-observation method,
    development research method, growth and
    development research method

4
Section 2 Origin and birthplace of crop
  • Origin of agriculture Origin of
    agriculture is the greatest change in the history
    of human beings and has great breakthrough .
    Methods of cultivation took place from B.C.5000
    to B.C.7000, from gathering wild plants to
    growing plants with their own hands, and from
    fishing and hunting wild animals to raising
    animals by themselves.
  • The earliest growing plants in the world
    People in the southwest of turkey ever began to
    cultivate barley and wheat in 5000 B.C. Broomcorn
    millet and foxtail millet were grown in Huanghe
    river valley at the New Stone Age. People in the
    Changjiang river valley commonly grew rice before
    60007000 years. Aruba people in Latin America
    have depended on food production greatly since
    4000 B.C, and they grew potato, maize, cucumber
    and legume etc. Along with races in African
    Sahara migrated south they cultivated sorghum
    etc. from 5000 B.C to 3000 B.C.

5
  • China is one of the original centers of
    crops in the world
  • China is one of the ancient agricultural
    centers that developed independently, and also
    original centers of crops and diversity centers
    in the world.
  • The crops originating in China
  • Rice, wheat, naked oats, six-edge barley,
    broomcorn millet, Chinese sorghum, soybean,
    buckwheat, bitter buckwheat, Chinese yam(??),
    rape, hemp(??), ramie(??), bluish dogbane(??),
    Chinese sugarcane and Chinese milk vetch(???)etc.

6
  • The crops introduced from mid-Asia and India
    areas Broad bean, pea, mung bean, black mung
    bean(???), sesame(??), safflower(??)and
    Lucerne(??)etc.
  • The crops introduced from Asia, Africa and
    Europe after A.D Oats, rye, hard grain wheat,
    taper wheat(????), African sorghum, , millet
    pea(??), castor oil plant(??), cotton plant and
    three-leaf grass etc.
  • The crops introduced from America maize,
    sweet potato, potato, kidney bean(????), peanut,
    sunflower, upland cotton, sea-island cotton,
    sisal hemp(??)and tobacco etc.

7
Section 3 Diversity and classification of crop
  • Diversity and protection of crop
  • Plant diversity
  • Crop diversity
  • Plant diversity are facing threat and we
    should protect them.
  • Tame and creation of crop
  • Collected wild plants
  • Planted them
  • Selected some of them
  • Bred new crop

8
  • Category of crops
  • Classification according to the physiological
    and ecological features of crops
  • Category according to temperature condition for
    crops warmth-liking crop (10?) and
    chilling-endurance crop (13?)
  • Classification according to the reaction of
    crop to photoperiod long-day plant (LDP, this
    kind of plant blossoms when sunshine day becomes
    long), short-day plant (SDP, this kind of plant
    blossoms when sunshine day becomes short),
    neutral plant (this kind of plant can blossoms
    under any sunshine time) and certain day-length
    plant (this kind of plant blossoms only under
    certain day length).

9
  • Classification according to the carbon
    dioxide assimilation ways of crops C3 crop
    and C4 crop
  • Category according to the different sowing time
    crop sowing in spring, crop sowing in summer,
    and crop sowing in autumn as well as crop sowing
    in winter in south of china
  • Classification according to the combination of
    crop uses with botany system
  • Grain crop (or edible crop)
  • Cereal crops
  • Legume crops
  • Tuber crops (or root-stem crops)

10
  • Economic crops fiber crops, oil crops ,
    sugar crops and other crops (herbs and some of
    them are hobby crops)
  • Feed and green manure crops Lucerne(??),,
    Chinese milk vetch(???), sweet clover(???),
    sesbania(??),and three-leaf grass(???)etc. are
    common in bean family. Sudanese grass(???), rye
    grass(???), brome-grass(???)etc are common in the
    grass family. In addition, such as red
    duckweed(??), water lettuce(???), water
    hyacinth(???)and water peanut(???)etc are both
    green manure crop and feed crop.

11
  • Some crops may have several uses, e.g.
    soybean are both edible and oil crop, flax(??)are
    both fiber crop and oil crop, maize are edible ,
    ensilage(feed) and economic, potato are both
    grain and vegetable, the flowers of
    safflowers(??)are medical materials and its seeds
    are oilseeds. So the classification above is not
    absolute. The same crop, according to need, can
    be classified into different category
    sometimes.
  • Sustainable agriculture First,we develop
    production in order to meet with contemporary
    request.Second, we should not damage environment
    when we develop production . We should make use
    of resources for ever.

12
Chapter 2 The growth and development of
cropSection 1 The characters of crop growth
and development
  • Notion of crop growth and development
  • Growth is the non-invertible quantity variation
    process, which means increasing of crop
    organ,tissue and cell on volume,weight, and
    quantity.Growth of vegetative organ, such as
    root, stem, and leaf, maybe balanced in the way
    of size, weight, and amount.

13
Development is the process of differentiation of
crop cell, tissue, and organ.That means the
quality change of crop morphology,construction
and function. Sometimes, the process is
invertible. For example, differentiation of ears
and flower buds, development of vascular,
production of tillers,development of stoma.
14
  • The process of crop development
  • The notion of S growth process
  • 1.low increasing phase Cells of seeds are
    in the phase of fission(??)and protoplasm(???)accu
    mulation, the growth is slow.
  • 2.Fast increasing phase Cell volume will
    amplify in the way of logarithmic function
    gradually, because substances synthesized by
    cells may synthesize more substances. And the
    more cells are, the faster growth will be.
  • 3.Decelerating increasing phase Cell growth
    will increase steadily, usually keeping the
    highest increasing ratio.
  • 4. Slow decreasing phase Cell growth begin to
    decrease, due to cell mature and senescence.

15
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16
  • The application of S growth process
  • We ought to notice carefully the situation of
    seedlings during the growth and development of
    crop, make crops have their own growing situation
    and growing progress toward high yield.
    Meanwhile, the sigmoid curve may also be regarded
    as one standard which can be used to examine
    whether the growth and development of crop is
    normal.
  • Every measure to promote or control the growth
    of crop should be applied before the quickest
    growth stage comes.
  • Different organs of crop have different growth
    and development speed through S growth process.

    Therefore when we control the growth and
    development of some organ we should pay attention
    to the influences of this measure on other
    organs.

17
  • The growth period and growth stage of crop
  • The growth period of crop
  • The notion of the growth period of crop the
    total days of crop growth and development from
    sowing to harvesting is regarded as the field
    growth period of crop, which is counted by day.
    The accurate calculating method of the growth
    period of crop ought to be the days from seed
    emergence to crop ripening or harvesting.

18
  • The length of the growth period of crops mainly
    depends on gene types and growth conditions of
    crop.
  • The relationship between growth period of crop
    and yield of crop Usually, the production
    capability of single plant for early maturing
    crop is low and the production capability of
    single plant for late maturing crop is high .
    However, it is not absolute.

19
  • The growth stage of crop
  • Throughout the life circle of crop, due to
    the influence of genetic and environmental
    factors, the morphological characters and
    physiological features would have a series of
    changes.According to these changes, especially
    the obvious changes of morphological features,the
    whole circle of crop growth can be divided into
    several phases , or several stages .

20
  • Rice and wheat usually are divided into
    seedling stage, tiller stage, jointing stage,
    boot stage, ear stage, florescence and maturity.
  • Maize normally is divided into seedling stage,
    jointing stage, big flared mouth stage, ear
    stage, silking stage and maturity.

21
  • Bean crops are divided into seedling
    emergence stage, branching stage, florescence,
    bearing pod stage, seed swelling stage and
    maturity.
  • Cotton is normally divided into seedling
    emergence stage, squaring stage, flowering and
    boll stage and boll opening stage.
  • Rape is usually divided into seedling
    emergence stage, squaring and bolting stage,
    florescence and maturity

22

23
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24
?????? ??????????????????????????????????????????
????????,???????????,??????????????? The
phenological period of crop The growth period
of crop is decided by its beginning and ending
phenological period. The phenological period
means the growth and development of crop shows
morphological characters under a certain outside
conditions, then a concrete standard is
formulated by people in order to to
scientifically master the growth and development
process of crop.
25
  • Rice
  • ??????????,?????
  • Seedling emergence un-complete leaves break
    through bud-sheath, whose color turns green.
  • ???????????lcm?
  • Tiller the first tiller comes out from
    bud-sheath about 1cm.
  • ????????????,???lcm,???2cm?
  • Jointing the first joint of stem extends,
    the first joint of stem for early rice reaches
    1cm, the first joint of stem for late rice
    reaches 2cm.
  • ????????????????
  • Booting the leaf-pillow of flag-leaf
    completely shows over the leaf-pillow of next
    leaf.

26
????????????lcm? Earring the spike-tip of
rice spike put forth 1cm from the leaf-sheath of
flag-leaf. ???????????????,????,??????????
Milky mature the contented-substances of seeds
for mid-part spike, which show milky syrup form
and have the sensation of hard substances when we
press them with hand, are full of grain husk
shells. ?????????????,??????,??????? Wax
mature the contented substances of mid-part of
rice spikes are thick and sticky, which have
solid sensation when we press with hand and dont
show milky form substances. ??????,?????Maturi
ty grain seeds turn yellow and rice quality
becomes hard.
27
  • Cotton
  • ???????
  • Seedling emergence Cotyledons spread.
  • ???????????3cm?
  • Squaring The bud-leaf of the first bud
    reaches 3cm
  • ????????????
  • Florescence The first flower bud of the
    first fruit- branch blossoms
  • ????????
  • Boll opening One boll opens and shows white
    fibers.

28
  • Soybean
  • ???????
  • Seedling emergence Cotyledons come up.
  • ??????????
  • Branching The first branch appears.
  • ?????????
  • Florescence The first flower blooms.
  • ??????2cm???
  • Bearing podThe length of young pods reaches more
    than 2cm.
  • ??????,????????
  • Swelling (or bulging) seeds Pods become flat,
    seed obviously project.
  • ?????????,??????,?????????
  • Maturity Pods show intrinsic colors and have
    split-pods when pressing them with hands or have
    sound when waving the plant.

29
Section 2 The organ-formation of crop
  • ??seed sprouting
  • Seeds of crop
  • ?????????????????????????????????????????????
    ???????????,????????3????
  • Seeds in the meaning of botany are sexual
    propagating organs, which develop from the
    fertilized ovules.Seeds for crop production just
    mean these sowing seeds which could be used to
    propagate plant, concluding three organs of
    botany.

30
  • ?????????????????,?????????????????????
  • The first kind of seeds seeds developing
    from the fertilized ovules, such as the seed of
    bean, cotton, rape, tobacco, etc.
  • ??????????????,?????????????????,?????????,?????
    ??
  • The second kind of seeds fruits developing
    from ovary, such as caryopsis of rice, wheat,
    corn, Chinese sorghum, millet, achene of
    buckwheat and sunflower, fruit of beet.
  • ???????????????,??????,??????,???????
  • The third kind of seeds root or stem used to
    propagate plants, such as root tuber of sweet
    potato, stem tuber of potato, stem joints of
    sugarcane.

31
  • ????????
  • Seed sprouting phase of crop
  • Seed sprouting contain three phases,
    imbibition, germination,seed sprouting.
  • ?? ???????????,?????????????????????,??????????
    ????????????
  • Imbibition Seeds absorb water completely
    and reach to the statement of saturation.
    Starch, protein and vegetable fat are hydrolyzed
    respectively into soluble sugar , amino acid,
    glycerine, etc, at the base reaction of some
    enzyme.

32
?? ??????????????,????????????,?????????????????
??????????????,????,???????,????????Germination
These substances above were transferred to all
parts of crop, then could be transformed and
synthesized structure substances of
embryo.Embryo growth depends on structure
substances. Radicle is the earliest growth part
and comes out from seed coat when it grows into
certain length. Lastly, the appearance of white
shoot top shows that the phase of germination has
completed.
33
?? ????,?????,???????????????,????????????,??????
??Sprouting After germinating ,embryo continue
to grow.That Cereal radicle reaches to the
length of seed,and plumule reaches to the half
length of seed, means that seeds begin to
sprout.
34
??????? ??????,???????????????,??????,???????????
??????The conditions of seeds sprouting
Whether seed could sprout firstly depends on the
germinating capacity of seed. Besides the own
factors, water, temperature and air are the major
conditions of seed sprouting.
35
?? ???????????????????????,????????????,???????15
0160,???137??????????????????,????220?240?
Water Absorbing water is the first step of
seeds sprouting. Seeds of different crops have
different quantities of absorbing water. The
seeds containing more starch absorbs less water
, e.g. wheat 150160, maize 137. While seeds
contains more protein and fat they can absorb
more water , such as soybean, 220240.
36
  • ?? ???????????????????,??????????????????????????
    ??????????,???????,????????????????????24?,
    1522?, 3035???1012? ,2226?
    ,3235??Temperature Seed sprouting needs the
    participation of a series of enzymes, and the
    catalysis of enzymes has close relations with
    temperature. Seed sprouting of different crops
    need different the lowest, suitable and highest
    temperature, even the same crop has difference
    due to different ecotypes, varieties or strains.
    E.g. wheat 24?, 1522?, 3035?. Maize 1012?,
    2226?, 3235?.

37
?? ????????,???????????????????????????,?????????
???????????????????,???????????????,??????????????
? Air Exuberant material metabolism and
material transport, etc, request the insurance of
atrobic respiration as a result oxygen is
necessary for seeds to sprout. Seed sprouting of
Different crops needs different oxygen degree,
such as peanut, soybean and cotton etc. , they
contain more fat, request more oxygen than
other crop seeds when sprouting.????????????.
In addition, seed sprouting of some crops needs
light.
38
?????????? Seed longevity and dormancy ?????
??????????????????????????,???13?,???????????1?,?
??????????????2??????????????,????????611????????
???????????Seed longevity namely is the time
from seeds harvesting to losing the capacity of
germination. Most of seeds have shorter
longevity, which is normally 13 years, e.g. seed
longevity of peanut is only 1 year, seeds
longevity of wheat, rice and soybean etc are 2
years. Also seeds longevity of broad beans and
mung beans seeds longevity could reach 6 years.
The length of seed longevity has close relations
with storage conditions.
39
????? ?????????,??????????????????????,??????????
?????????????,??????????,???????????Seed
dormancy Phenomenon of crop seeds and organs
applied to propagate stopping sprouting
tentatively is regarded as seed dormancy under
the appropriate conditions of sprouting.
Dormancy, which is quite common among wild
plants, while less for crops, is a kind of
adaptation of crop to bad circumstances.
40
  • ????????????
  • Reasons and dealing methods of seed dormancy
  • ???? ??????????,???????????,???????????????????
    ?????,????,?????
  • The later ripening of embryo later ripening
    of embryo is the main reason of seed dormancy.
    Embryo issues are not ripening physiologically,
    which have no capacity of sprouting. This kind of
    seeds could sprout through dealing with low
    temperature and water that could promote late
    ripening and make seeds sprout

41
?? ????,???????,???,?????,???????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????,??????Hard
seed The peel of hard seed is waterproof and
airproof, so seeds do not sprout, which caused
dormancy. For instance, bean crops easily produce
hard seed under the arid, high temperature and
more nitrogen . Usually we can utilize machine to
graze seed peel, such as ethyl alcohol, or use
chemical substances ,such as concentrated
sulphuric acid, etc, to deal with seeds peels so
as to fuse seeds peels and enhance their
permeability.
42
??????? ???????????????????????,???????????????,?
?????????????????????????????????????,??????The
materials of restraining sprouting e.g.
abscisic acid (ABA), phenol-type compound and
organic acids etc. In the case, we are able to
rescind dormancy by changing light, temperature,
water and air etc or applying plant hormones
such as gibberellin (GA3), cytokinin (CTK, CK),
ethylene , hydrogen peroxide solution and
nitrate etc to deal with dormancy.
43
??The growth of root
  • ????? ?????????????????????????????????? ?
  • The root system of crop the root system
    of crop evolves from first roots, secondary roots
    and adventitious roots. The root system of crop
    can be divided into 2 kinds.
  • ????? ???????????(???)??????????????????,???1???
    ?,???????37???,???????,?????????????,?????
  • Monocotyledon the root system of
    monocotyledon belongs to fibrous root system,
    which is composed of seed-roots and secondary
    roots produced on the stem-joints. Seed grows one
    first-root firstly when sprouting, then some grow
    37 lateral roots. Along with the growth of
    seedlings, the stem-joints of basic part grow
    some secondary roots.

44
????? ???????1?????????????????????????,????????
????????,?????,??????????,??????Dicotyledon
the root system of dicotyledon belongs to taproot
system, which is composed of one flourishing main
root and all different levels roots. Seed-root
spreads continuously, finally becomes main root.
Main root, which is more well-developed,
gradually differentiates and grows lateral roots,
branch-roots and tiny roots etc that become
tinier step by step and then form taproot system.

45
  • The growth of root
  • ????????????????????,????????,??????????,?????????
    ????,???????
  • Roots quantity of cereal crops root-system
    increases continuously along with the increasing
    of tillers, and the horizontal growth becomes
    obvious, and turns to depth spread after
    jointing, and then reaches the greatest value at
    booting or earing stage, later decreases
    gradually.

46
?????????????????????,??????,???????,??????????,??
???? 90?????020cm??? ? Dictoyledon root-system
such as cotton, soybean etc also forms step by
step, which grows slowly in seedling stage,
accelerates progressively after squaring period,
the root-quantity reaches the greatest value at
florescence, later root growth becomes slow. 90
roots are distributed mainly under earthen layer
020cm. ???????? The factors affecting root
growth ???????????????????????? ? Soil
resistance, soil water, soil temperature, soil
nutrients and soil oxygen etc.
47
????????
48
? ?The growth of stem
  • Crop stems
  • ??????? ?????,????,???????????????????,??????????
    ?,?????????????????????,??????????,?????,?????????
    ?????????????,?????????????????????,??????????????
    ????,????????????????????
  • Monocotyledon stems most monocotyledon stems
    are circular and hollow, also some cereal crops
    stems are rich with piths and become solid. The
    stems are composed of lots of joints and knots.
    Many leaves grow in stems. The stem-joint knots
    of cereal crops basic part are pretty short and
    dense, and near the soil surface, which are
    called tiller-joints. Axillary buds growing in
    tiller-joints can grow up new stems under
    suitable conditions, namely tillers. Tillers
    growing up from main-stem leaf-axles are called
    first level tillers, tillers growing up from
    first level tiller are called second level
    tillers, we may reason out the rest by analogy.
    Cereal crops on-soil joints usually dont branch.

49
  • ??????? ??????,??,?????????????????????,?????????
    ????????????,??????????????????,??????????????????
    ???,??????,??????,??????,????,??????,?????????????
    ??????????,??????????????? ?
  • Dictoyledon stems Most are nearly
    circle,solid, compose of stem and stem joints.
    Branches growing up from main stem are regarded
    as first level branches, branches growing up from
    the first level branch are regarded as second
    branches, we can reason out the rest by analogy.
    In every new-leaf leaf-axle of cotton main stem
    has 2 buds, the bud in the middle called first
    bud, which grows up leaf branch that is
    single-axle branch, another bud is regarded as
    vice-bud, which grows up fruit-branch that is
    axles-branch. Branches growing from several lower
    parts joints of cotton main stem usually are
    leaf-branches. Branches growing from middle and
    higher parts of main stem normally are
    fruit-branches.

50
Growth of crop stems??????,?????????S???????????
????????????????????????,????????????,????????????
???As for as the whole plants are concerned, the
getting higher process of stem displays sigmoid,
cereal crops stems mainly depend on fusion and
spread of every knot basic parts
separating-growing-issues cells between 2 parts
which makes every knot extends and grows higher
gradually. The spreading method of knot is growth
between 2 parts.
51
???????,???????????????????,?????,????,??????,????
??????????Dictoyledon stems major rely on the
division and spread of stem-tip-separating-issues
cells that make joints quantity increase, knots
elongate longer and plant grow higher gradually.
The elongation of knots is top-growth.
52
  • The conditions affecting the growth of stem
  • ???? ??,???????,????,????(???)????,??,????(??
    ??)?? ?? ???????,??????????,?????????(??)???????
    ???????,??????????(??)?????????????????????
  • Growing density Less seedling, higher
    single-plant nutritive areas, and enough light
    would make plants have stronger capacity of
    branching(or tillering). Conversely, more
    seedlings, then the capacity of branching(or
    tillering) is weak.

53
Applying fertilizer Enough base fertilizer,
seedling fertilizer and increasing soil
nitrogenous nutrient may promote the growth of
main stems and branches. If the proportion of
applied nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are
proper, then it would be more beneficial to the
growth of main stems and branches.Selecting
short-straw variety and well-developed mechanical
tissues variety will be more beneficial to stem
growth.
54
??The growth of leaf
  • Crop leaves
  • ??????????????????????,????????????,????????(?
    ?)?????
  • Crop leaves may be divided into cotyledon
    which is a part of embryo and grows in the
    plumular axis and new leaf that is called leaf
    and grows in every joint of main stem and
    branch(tiller).

55
????? ?????????????????????????????,????,???????
??,??????????????????????(??)???,???????????????4?
?,????????????,??????????,???????????Monocotyledo
n one cotyledon of cereal crops would form
plumule sheath wrapping up plumule, another
cotyledon resembles shield-shape and are called
shied-piece for short, which has the function of
digestion, absorption and transporting nutrient
when sprouting and seedlings growth. Cereal crop
leaves (new leaves) are simple leaf including 4
parts, leaf piece, leaf-sheath, leaf-ear and leaf
tongue. Leaf possessing leaf piece and leaf
sheath is regarded as complete leaf, leaf lacking
leaf piece is called as un-complete leaf, such as
the first leaf of rice is called as sheath-leaf.
56
  • ????? ??????????,?????????,??????????????????????
    ?????3????,?????,??????????????????????,????????
    ?????,?????
  • Dictoyledon Dictoyledon has 2 cotyledons
    containing abundant nutritive substances which
    have function of offering seeds sprouting and
    seedling growth.The leaf is composed of leaf
    piece, leaf-stalk and stipule, which is called as
    complete leaf, such as cotton, soybean and peanut
    etc. However, some dictoyledon crop lack stipule,
    such as sweet potato, rape etc, some lack leaf
    stalk, such as tobacco etc.

57
  • The leaf growth of crop
  • ?(??)????????????????????????,??????????,?????????
    ???????????????????????
  • Leaf originates from leaf-original-base of
    stem-tip basic part. Stem-tip can unceasingly
    differentiate leaf-original bases before becoming
    reproductive organs. So usually there are
    different size and different developing degree
    leaf-original and young leaves.

58
?????????????????????????,?????????????????????1/2
???????????????????????1/2???????????????????????
????????????The time from leafs sending out
photosynthetic matter to losing the capacity of
exporting is called functional phase. The
functional phase of cereal crops is normally
days from the time of leaf stable length to the
time of half-yellow leaf .The dicotyledons is
the days from leaf opening and flatting time to
the half-yellow leaf time. Because of different
crop varieties, leaf-position and cultivating
conditions, the length of leaf functional phase
is different. ??????????????????????????????
The differentiation, arise and spread of leaves
would be affected by light, temperature, water,
mineral nutrient etc..
59
??Development of flower
  • Differentiation of flower organs
  • ??????????
  • Differentiation of cereals young spikes
  • ??????????????????????????????????????????,????
    ?????,?????????,????????????
  • Cereals flower is regarded as spike. Flowers
    of wheat ,barely and rye take on the spike
    appearances. Flowers of rice, Chinese sorghum and
    male flowers of corn take on the circle cone
    appearances.Spike of foxtail millet is belong to
    circle cone spike, but its stem of spike is short
    and looks like spike appearance.
  • ???? Structure of spike
  • ???? Differentiation of spike

60
?????????? Bud differentiation of dicotyledon
????????,?????????????,??????????,????????????????
????????????????????? Flower of cotton is
single, flower of bean, peanut and rape is belong
to raceme tobacco flower is belong to circle
cone spike or raceme beet flower is belong to
complex raceme.All these flowers are composed
of pedicle, receptacle, calyx,corolla, stamen and
pistil,.???? Differentiation of flower
61
?????????Spike of rice and flower of cotton
62
?????????????? Differentiation of young spike of
wheat and rice and its characters
63
?????????????? Bud differentiation phases of
cotton and rape and its characters
64
Blossom, pollination and fertilization ??
????????,?????????(?????)????????Blossom
namely is the phenomenon of flower opening and
mature stamen and pistil (or one of them) showing
out.?? ????????????????????????????,?????
Mature pollen-particles are transmitted to pistil
stigma from stamen another with the help of
external force, the process is called
pollination.
65
?? ???,???????????????????,?????Fertilization
Male cell namely egg cell (or ovum) fuse with
sperm (or spermatozoon) mutually after
pollination, the process is called
fertilization.???????????????????????, ??,??,??
The factors affecting flower organ
differentiation, blossom, pollination and
fertilization nutritive factors, temperature,
water and weather, etc.
66
??The development of seed and fruit
  • ?????????,???????,??????????,????????????????????
    ????????????,????????????????????????????,????????
    ?????????????,??????????,????????????????????????
    ???????,????????????,??????????
  • Seed develops from ovule . Embryo develops
    from zygote . Newborn endosperm nucleus changes
    into endosperm. Pearl-quilt wrapping ovule
    develops into seed-peel. Zygote successively
    differentiates into cotyledon, plumule, radicle
    and plumular axis and forms new life. During the
    course of newborn endosperm nucleus developing
    into endosperm, accumulating and depositing
    nutrients, the endosperms of beans, rape etc
    would be absorbed by developing embryo, which
    deposit nutrients with cotyledon, thereby forming
    endosperm seeds without endosperm. But rice,
    wheat and maize etc have well-developed endosperm
    issues, endosperm cells could store up nutrients,
    thereby forming seeds with endosperm.

67
  • ?????????,????????????????????????????????,???????
    ????????????,????????????(?????????)?????????
  • Fruit develops from ovary. Fruit development is
    related to the incentive (or stimulus) of
    fertilization and seed development. The fruit
    part beside seed literally is composed of
    external peel, middle-peel and internal peel.
    Fruits characters are decided by the features of
    middle-peel and internal-peel, such as pulps and
    membranes, etc.

68
???????????,???????????,??????????????,???????????
(????????????)?????????????(???????????),?????????
??????In the process of seed and fruit
development, besides the change of external
appearance and color, the internal chemical
compositions also change obviously, namely
dissolvable little molecule organic compound
transform into un-dissolvable big molecule
organic compounds (such as protein, fat and
starch etc).The water content of seed and fruit
also decreases gradually.
69
  • ????????????
  • ????????????????,?????????????
    ??????????????????.
  • The factors affecting seed and fruit
    development First, there should be enough
    organic nutrients in plant body and organic
    nutrients must be continuously transported to
    seed and fruit, in addition, the influence of
    temperature, soil water and mineral nutrients is
    also vital.

70
Section 3 Reaction of crop to temperature and
photoperiod
  • ????????????????????????????,?????????????,???????
    ???,?????????????,????????????????????????,???????
    ?????????????
  • Different varieties of same crop have
    different growth period. The same crop varieties
    growing in different season, latitude and
    elevation have different growth period, some
    even affect normal blossom and mature. The major
    reason for this is that crop variety has
    different reaction characters to temperature and
    light.In details, this is caused by different
    reaction characters of crop to temperature and
    photoperiod.

71
  • ????????? ??????????????????,?????????????,???????
    ????,?????????????????????????,????????????
  • The reaction characters of crop to temperature
    and photoperiod
  • Crops must be induced through a certain
    temperature and photoperiod, then vegetative
    growth could transform into reproductive growth,
    then flower bud or young spike differentiation
    can start, and after this plant can blossom and
    bear fruit. This is regarded as the reaction of
    crop to temperature and photoperiod.

72
??????? ?????????????????????????????,???????????
??????,?????????????????? The basic features of
vegetative growth Reaction of crop to
temperature and photoperiod happens after certain
time of vegetative growth that is essential. The
essential period of vegetative growth is regarded
as basic period(or character) of vegetative
growth.
73
The reaction character of crop to temperature
  • ???????,?????????????,???????????????????,????????
    ????????????????,????????,???????
  • Some two-year plants, such as winter wheat,
    winter rye, winter rape etc, must be induced by
    low temperature through a certain time in their
    vegetative growth period, or some annual plants
    such as rice etc must be induced by high
    temperature through a certain time, then the
    growth can be transformed into reproductive
    growth.

74
The reaction characters of crop to photoperiod
???????????????????,???????????,?????????????????
,??????????????3??? ????? ???????????The
differentiation and formation of flower-organs
need induction of a certain temperature, in
addition, induction of a certain photoperiod is
essential. The features of different crop
varieties requesting induction of a certain
photoperiod are regarded as the reaction
character of crop to photoperiod that normally is
divided into 4 types.
75
  • The basic vegetative growth of crop
  • ????????????????????,????????????????????,???
    ??????????,??????(??)???????????????,?????????????
    ?????,??????????????????????????????1560?????????
    ?????????????????2427??
  • Crop reproductive growth carries out on the
    base of vegetative growth. Crop must have lowest
    vegetative growth even though the temperature and
    photoperiod conditions are suitable for crop
    development, then crop could start
    differentiation of young spike (or flower bud).
    The vegetative growth period before reproductive
    growth that is not shortened by induction of
    temperature and photoperiod is called as basic
    vegetative growth period, such as the range of
    basic vegetative growth period for different rice
    varieties is 1560 days, for cabbage-type rape
    varieties is 24-27 days.

76

???????????? ???????????? ????????????
??????? ???????
????? ????? ?????
?????? ?????? ??????

77
The application of the reaction of crop to
temperature and photoperiod in crop production
  • ??????? ?????????????,????????????????????.
  • Application in introduction of variety
    Because different areas have different
    temperature and light ecological conditions, so
    we ought to consider fully the reaction of crop
    to temperature and photoperiod when we introduce
    variety.
  • ??????? ???????????????,????????????????
  • Application in cultivation The reaction of
    crop to temperature and photoperiod should be
    considered in the distribution of varieties,
    sowing time,planting density, and fertilization
    etc.

78
  • ??????? ??????????,???????????,?????????????????(
    ???)?,??????????,?????????????????????????????????
    ,?????????????????????????????,???????????????????
    ???????????,???????????????,??????,?????
  • Application in breeding We should put forward
    the reaction of crop to temperature and
    photoperiod according to local climate
    conditions when we work out aim of crop breeding.
    We may adjust sowing time according to the
    reaction of parent to temperature and photoperiod
    in order to make flowering of 2 parents meet
    when we do crossing. We may decide whether
    winter-reproduction or summer reproduction of
    breeding material according to their reaction
    to temperature and photoperiod so as to shorten
    breeding process or accelerate seed reproduction.
    In addition, if we need winter-wheat and rape to
    be parents in spring wheat and rape areas in
    China, we should deal winter parents with
    verbalization, make them blossom normally in
    spring wheat and rape areas, and then do
    crossing.

79
Section 4 The correlation of crop growth
  • ???????????? ??????????????????????????????,?????
    ?????????,??????????,?????,?????????
  • Relations between vegetative growth and
    reproductive growth The vegetative growth is
    the base of reproductive growth, they have much
    more paradox at the advancing stage side by side,
    so we must promote them develop continuously. At
    reproductive growth period, crop vegetative
    growth still exists. For coordinating their
    relations, we should master properly their growth
    stages.

80
?????????????? ?????????????????????,???????????
? ???????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????? Relationships between the
top and the root The two parts of crop
have close relations, namely usually as the
saying goes only deep roots can have more
leaves, strengthening roots before
strengthening seedlings . Substances of two
parts exchange mutually, the two parts keep a
certain proportion of weight. The influence of
environmental and cultivating measures on root
and top part is not coordinative.
81
  • ?????????
  • Same spread relations of crop organs
  • ????????????????????????????????????,????????
    ???,??????(???)??????????
  • Organ-formation shows a certain
    corresponding relations. Some organs grow or
    extend lawfully in the same time, which is
    regarded as same spread relations of crop organs.
    These organs growing (or extending) at same time
    are same spread organs.

82
Same spread relations among cereals organs
???????????????N-3?????????????????
??????,?N???,?(N?1)?????(N-2)??(N-3)?????????
Relations between mother-stem and tillers
Main-stem leaves and tillers display same spread
relations of N-3. Among different organs, N
leaf-piece, (N-1) leaf sheath and (N-2) leaf to
(N-3) leaf knot are same spread organs.
?????????? ????????????,?????????????,????????
??????N-3?Relations between top organs and roots
When rice, wheat tillers shows up,
adventitious roots would form at same time on the
same joint. The same spread relations between
leaves and roots also is N-3.
83
  • ?????????????????
  • Simultaneous spread relations between young
    spikes and vegetative organs of cereal crops
  • ?????????????????????????????
  • We could infer the process of young spikes
    development through utilizing the simultaneous
    spread relations among organs. Methods most in
    use at present as follows
  • ??? ??????????????????????????,??????1?,??????1?
    ?
  • Leaf age method We regard the leaf number
    as target directly. During the spike
    differentiation process of cereal crops,
    basically once 1 leaf grows up,young spike
    differentiation carries forward 1 stage after
    their young spikes starting differentiation.

84
  • ????? ????????????????????,????????????????????
    ???,????,????,????????????,??????????????????????
    ??4?????????,??1?????1?????,????????1??
  • Leaf age remainder method The whole leaves
    of crop minus the growing-out leaves is leaf age
    remainder. We simplify the development process
    of rice young spike as bud differentiation,
    branch differentiation, glum flower
    differentiation,pollen mother cell formation and
    meiosis and pollen solid.The simultaneous spread
    relations between young spike development and
    leaf growth is that when 1 leaf grows up, the
    process of spike differentiation goes 1 stage
    after the latter half period of leaf 4 from
    above.

85
  • ????? ?????????(????)??????????,???????????(????
    ???/??????)100
  • Leaf age index method The extended leaf
    percentage of the total leaves is considered as
    leaf age index. Leaf age indexthe extended
    leaves of main stem /the total leaves of main
    stem x100
  • ???????? ???????????????????????????????????????
    ??????????????????????????
  • Relation between individual and colony Crop
    individual and colony both relate and restrict
    mutually. Reasonable growing density is
    beneficial to coordinative development between
    individual and colony.We can promote crop yield
    by adopting cultivating technological measures
    through applying the automatic adjusting
    mechanism of crop colony.

86
Chapter 3 Formation of crop yield and quality
Section 1 Crop yield and its components
  • ???? ????????????????????????????????????????????
    ??????????
  • Crop yield The purpose of cultivating crops
    is to get more products with economic value. Crop
    yield namely the quantity of crop products,
    normally crop yield may be divided into economic
    yield and bio-yield.

87
???? ??????,?????????????????,???????????????????
???????,??????????????(??????)? Bio-yield The
total output of all organic compounds producing
and accumulating through photosynthesis and
absorption, namely the total organic matter by
conversion of substances and energy throughout
the whole growth and development period.
Bio-yield usually does not contain root system
(except root-tuber crops ).
88
  • ???? ???????????????,?????????
  • Economic yield The amount of harvest
    products according to the cultivating purpose is
    called economic yield.
  • ????????? ????????????,???????????????,??????????
    ?????????????????????????????,??????????????,?????
    ?????????????
  • Harvesting index The proportion of economic
    yield making up bio-yield, namely the efficiency
    of bio-yield turning into economic yield, is
    regarded as harvesting index. The high economic
    coefficient only indicates the proportion of
    transporting bio-yield into economic products
    organs, not means high economic yield. Normally,
    the economic yield is positively relation with
    bio-yield.
  • ???? ???????????????????
  • Relations among economic yield, bio-yield and
    harvesting index Economic yieldbio-yield
    harvesting index

89
  • ?????? ?????????????????????,????????????????????
    ?????????????
  • yield components Crop yield is yield of
    crop colony on per unit land area, namely which
    is made up of individual yield or quantity of
    product-organs. Crop yield may be divided into
    several factors.
  • ?????????????????? ?????????????
  • Yield components of cereal crops spike
    number seeds per spike weight per seed, or
    spikes glumes per spike bearing rate
    weight per seed
  • ??????????????????????????????
  • Yield components of bean Plant number
    effective branches per single plant pods per
    single-branch seeds per pod weight per seed

90
  • ??????????????????
  • Yield components of potato plant number
    potatoes per plant weight per single potato
  • ??????????????????????
  • Yield components of cotton plant numbers
    effective bolls per plant un-ginned cotton
    weight per boll ginning cotton rate
  • ????????????????????????????
  • Yield components of rape plant number
    effective branches per plant fruits per branch
    seeds per fruit weight per seed

91
?????????? ????????????,????????????????(??)????
???????????????????????,??????????????
Relations among yield components its hard that
yield components increase each other. Usually
they have negative correlation each other. The
negative correlations between plant density and
yield of single plant is obvious.The former of
yield components is the base of latter, and the
latter has a certain compensative function to the
former.
92
(No Transcript)
93
  • ????????
  • Forming feature of crop yield.
  • ????????? ?????????????????????????????
    ???????????????????,?????????????????????
  • Forming feature of yield components
    Formation of yield components conducts
    successively and overlapping in different stages
    of the whole growth period.Yield components have
    automatic adjustment phenomenon during their
    formation, which mainly reflects compensatory
    effect on colony yield.

94
????????? Accumulation and distribution of dry
matter ??????????????????????????????????????????
??? The process of yield formation contains
formation of photosynthetic organs, absorbing
organs and product-organs as well as the
formation, transportation and accumulation of
contents in product-organs. ??????????,??????????
????????????,??????????????On the part of matter
production, the formation of crop yield literally
is through photosynthesis directly or indirectly
and depends on the accumulation and distribution
of photosynthetic substance.
95
  • ?????????????????????????????????,????????????????
    ?????????????,??????????????????????????????????
    ????????,???????CO2??????????????????,??????,?????
    ?,??????,???????,???????????,???????,????????????
  • The capacity of crop photosynthetic
    productivity is closely related to photosynthetic
    area, photosynthetic time and photosynthetic
    efficiency. Photosynthetic area, namely green
    surface area include leaf, leaf-sheath and the
    surface of fruit which could engage in
    photosynthesis.Among them the green leaf-area is
    the main part of photosynthetic areas,
    photosynthetic time is the time of
    photosynthesis, photosynthetic efficiency is the
    mg quantity of assimilating carbon dioxide (CO2)
    or the g quantity of accumulating dry substances
    per unit time and per unit leaf-area. Usually,
    under suitable conditions, bigger photosynthetic
    area, longer photosynthetic time, higher
    photosynthetic efficiency, fewer non-productive
    consumption of photosynthetic matter, more
    reasonable distribution and utilization, would be
    beneficial to getting high yield.

96
  • ????????????Logistic??(S???)??,???????????????
    ????????????
  • Accumulative development of crop dry matter
    follows logistic curve (or sigmoid) model, namely
    through low increasing phase, logarithmic
    increasing phase, increasing phase and slowing
    phase.
  • ??????????????????????????
  • Because of different species, varieties, growth
    stages and cultivating conditions, dry substances
    distribution is different.

97
  • ????Growth analysis
  • ??????????????????????,????????,??????????????????
    ,??????????????????????????????
  • The basic view of growth analysis method is
    mainly to determine increasing of dry matters,
    in addition to determining foliage areas,
    calculating index of physiology function relative
    to photosynthesis, comparing the difference
    between growth and yield form of crop, varieties
    and ecological circumstance.

98
?????(RGR) ???????????????,???g/g.d?g/g????Rel
ative growth ratio weight increases per certain
time and plant weight, g/g.d or g/g.w????(NAR)
???????????????????? Net assimilation ratio dry
matter increases per leaf area and per unit
time.?????(LAP) ??????????(LAV)??????,?????????
?LAP leaf areas per dry matter weight,the
proportion of leaf area to plant dry matter
weight.
99
  • ????(SLA) ????????????,??????????,???????????????
    ????
  • SLA SLA is also called leaf areas dry matter
    weight. It is the ratio of leaf area to its dry
    matter weight, and means the relative leaf
    thickness in some degree.
  • ????(LWR) ?????????????????
  • LWR LWR is the ratio of dry leaf weight to
    dry matter weight of plant.

100
?????(CGR) ?????????????,????????????????????????
CGR CGR is also called colony growth ratio.
It is showed with dry matter weight increasing
per unit time and per soil area. ?????(
LAI)???(LAD) ???m2.d??,????????????? LAD
LAD is the product of photosynthetic leaf area
and photosynthetic leaf time, the unit is m2.d
101
Section 2 Source, current and sink theory of
crop and its application
  • ? ???????,????????????????,??,???????????????????
    ?????,????????????????
  • Source The formation of crop yield is in
    fact through leaf photosynthesis, thereby, source
    namely is the leaf to produce and export
    photosynthetic assimilate. On the part of crop
    colony, source is colony leaf-areas and
    photosynthetic capacity.

102
??????????????????????????????????????,???????????
???????????????????????????????????????????
Photosynthetic matter of cereal crop is mainly
transported to spike, spikelet and flower etc
before blossoming, and partly deposited in stem,
leaf and leaf-sheath in order to meet need of
plant after blossoming. Photosynthetic matter is
directly supplied to product-organs after
blooming. Source assimilation has the feature of
transporting nearby organs.
103
  • ? ?????????????????????
  • Sink namely the volume of product-organs and
    the capacity of containing nutritive substances
  • ?????????????
  • The potential capacity of sink is in the
    course of sink formation.
  • ??????????????????????????
  • The sustainable period and the speed of
    grain being in the milk decide the capacity for
    cereal crop seed to deposit substance .

104
  • ? ??????????????????????
  • Current namely the development state and
    the efficiency of transporting system in plant
    body.
  • ??????????????????,??????????????????,????????????
    ?,???????????????????
  • The major organs of current are leaves,
    sheath and vascular system being in stem, among
    them the spike-neck vascular bundle may be
    regarded as the general passage of source linking
    to sink, assimilate is transported through
    phloem, thin wall cells of phloem are the major
    issues to transport assimilate.
  • ???????????????????????????,??????????????
  • Many factors can influence assimilate
    transportation. The well-developed phloem is an
    important factor that affects assimilate
    transportation.

105
  • ???????????? ???????????????????,????????????,????
    ?????
  • Coordination of source, current and sink as
    well as its application Formation of source,
    current and sink, and elaboration of their
    function are not alone, but related , promoted ,
    sometimes replace mutually.
  • ????????,????????????????????????????,????????????
    ??????
  • On the part of the relation between
    source-organs and sink-organs, source is the
    substance base of sink forming and enriching.
  • The functions of source and sink are
    relative. Sometimes, one organ has double
    functions.
  • ??????????,??????????????????????,???????????
  • As far as the relations among source, sink
    and current are concerned, the big or small of
    source and sink obviously affects the direction,
    rate and quantity of current, and has the pulling
    force and thrusting force.

106
?????????????????????????,??????????????????,????
??????? Source, current and sink form unified
entirety during crop metabolism activity and
yield formation, their balance developing
decides the crop yield and is the key factor to
control the yield.
107
  • ?????????????????,??????????,??????????????????,??
    ??????,????????????????,???????,???,??????????????
    ???????????,???????????????????????,??????????,???
    ????????????,??,????????????????????????????,?????
    ????????????????

108
  •       Analyzing the restricting function of
    source and sink under different yield level is
    beneficial to reasonably apply cultivated
    measures and increasing yield. Usually, when
    yield level is low, inadequate source is the
    dominant factor of increasing yield. Meanwhile,
    less spikes per unit area and little sink
    capacity are also the reason of low yield.
    Increasing source and enlarging sink are the way
    of increasing yield by increasing leaf area and
    spikes. But when the leaf-area reaches certain
    level, increasing spikes will make leaf area
    surpass the suitable scope. At this
    moment,increasing source would be to enhance
    photosynthetic rate or to lengthen photosynthetic
    time, enlarging sink should be changed from
    increasing spikes to increasing seeds per spike
    and seed weight.

109
Section 3 the potential yield of crop
  • ????? ???????????????,??????????????????????,?????
    ????????
  • Potential Productivity The yield of crop
    under the ideal conditions, namely the yield
    reached by developing the yield potentiality of
    crop is regarded as potential productivity or
    theoretical productivity .
  • ????? ????????????????,????????
  • Practical productivity The yield under the
    conditions in fact is called as practical
    productivity .

110
  • Light, temperature and water resources and
    crop productive potentiality
  • ?????? Light and temperature yield potentiality
  • ??????? Light, temperature and water yield
    potentiality
  • ???????? Light, temperature, water and fertilizer
    potentiality
  • ??????????? ????????????????????????,??????,?????
    ???????????????????????????????,??????,????????
    ?????
  • Measures of increasing crop yield are
    improving productive conditions, utilizing fully
    crop intrinsic genotype diversity and making
    better genetic improvement, and enhancing their
    photosynthetic rate, Enhancing solar energy
    amount intercepted by crop, decreasing
    respiratory consumption, adopting advanced
    cultivating technological measures, improving
    cultivated conditions, and enhancing the
    efficiency of crop to utilize solar energy.

111
Section 4 The crop quality and its formation
  • Notion of crop quality
  • ??????????????,?????????????,?????????????????
    ???,???????????????????????,?????????????,???????
    ??,?????????????????????,????????,???????????????
    ??????????????
  • Crop product quality means that it could
    reach to the degree of people requirements, which
    is relative to economic value of product. The
    evaluating standard is different with different
    product uses. As edible product, its nutrition
    and edible value are more important than
    others.As rude materials product, its fiber
    quality is popular. We often take two measure
    indexes, one is physical-chemical index, and the
    other is morpholoical index. Every crop has
    certain quality index system.

112
??????? ????????????????????????? Grain product
quality can be divided into nutrition index,
edible quality, process quality and commodity
quality,etc.???? ??????????????????????????Edibl
e quality is relative with nutrition quality ,
steaming and boiling edible quality, process
quality and appearance quality.
113
  • ???? ?????????,??????????,??????????????????????,?
    ?????????????
  • Nutrition quality means nutrition value of
    product, and is important aspect of product
    quality. It is mainly decided by chemical
    ingredients and their contents.Standard of
    nutrition is different with the difference of
    products.
  • ?????????????????????????
  • Index of process quality and commodity
    quality is different with different crop product.

114
??????? ?????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????Ec
onomic crop quality mainly contains technology
quality and process quality. Fiber quality is
decided by fiber length, degree of thickness and
toughness oil crop nutrition, storage quality
and process quality are decided by content and
ingredients of seeds fat.???????
??????????????????????????? Forage crop quality
is mainly decided by protein contents ,amino
acid component, crude fiber content,etc.
115
The physiological and biochemical foundations of
crop quality formation
??????????????????,???????????????????????????????
?????????????,????????????????????? Special
substances formed by crop decides its quality,
such as storage protein, fat, starch,
carbohydrate, fiber as well as special multiple
compounds, e.g. Quantity and quality of tannin,
vegetable alkali and terpene etc, whose quantity
and quality would be various due to different
crop varieties and environmental conditions.
116
  • ???????????????????????????????????,??????????????
    ???????????????????,?????????????,????????????????
    ,?????????Among the substances forming in crop,
    carbohydrate, protein, fat and ash content are
    dominant in quantity, but because of different
    crops, these major compositions are different in
    proportion. Carbohydrate is dominant in cereal
    crops, fat and protein are dominant in oil crops,
    bean crops and oil crops have similar protein
    content, but fat content is fewer in bean crops
    than in oil crops.
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