AGRICULTURE

1
AGRICULTURE
2
OBJECTIVES

• Compare contrast agri systems in the Caribbean
• Explain roles of agri in the region
• Assess the impact of agri on the environment
• Explain features of sustainable agri
• Discuss threats to sustainable agri
• Evaluate environmentally sustainable alternatives
  to current agricultural system and practices

3
DEFINITION OF AGRICULTURE
4
Types of Agriculture in Caribbean

• Types
• Peasant/Subsistence
• Commercial
• Subsistence farming, or subsistence agriculture,
  is a mode of agriculture in which a plot of land
  produces only enough food to feed the family or
  small community working it.
• SF the provision of food by farmers only for
  their own family or the local community without
  any surplus.

5

• Main priority of subsistence farmers is
  self-survival which they try to achieve by
  growing/ rearing a wide range of crops/animals.
• These farmers are unable to improve their output
  is due to
• Lack of capital
• Lack of land technology but not due to
  effort/ability
• Vulnerable to food shortages

6

• Commercial farming - The production of crops for
  sale, crops intended for widespread distribution
  to wholesalers or retail outlets (e.g.
  supermarkets), and any non-food crops such as
  cotton and tobacco.
• Includes livestock production and livestock
  grazing. Commercial agriculture does not include
  crops grown for household consumption (e.g
  backyard garden or from a vegetable garden or a
  few fruit trees.)
• Occurs on a large, profit making scale. These
  farmers seek to maximize yields per hectare.

7
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SUBSISTENCE COMMERCIAL
FARMERS
TRADITIONAL/SUBSISTENCE MODERN/COMMERCIAL
Proportion of output sold off the farm Low High
Destination of foods Local direct consumption some processed locally High proportion processed to food manufacturers
Origin of inputs Power Plant nutrients Pest control Weed control Implements tools Seed Livestock feeds Draught animals Legumes, ash, bones, manure Crop rotations, intercropping Rotations, hoeing, use of plough Hoe, plough, sickle, scythe From own harvest Grass fodder crops grown on farm/common land Petroleum, electricity Chemical fertilisers Insecticides, fungicides, break crops Herbicides Machinery, often self-propelled combine harvesters Purchased from seed merchants Purchased from compound feed mixers
8
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SUBSISTENCE COMMERCIAL
FARMERS
TRADITIONAL/SUBSISTENCE MODERN/COMMERCIAL
Economic aims Prime aim to provide family food Land labour main inputs, few capital inputs Diversity of crops grown Aims at maximising gross output yield per acre Prime aim avoidance of risk reluctant to innovate Profit maximisation Capital land major inputs labour a declining input Specialised production Aims at maximising output per head minimising production costs Innovation
9
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
10
PROBLEMS WITH MODERN AGRICULTURE

• Can you guess?
• Environmental degradation
• soil erosion, pollution by pesticides,
  salinization
• Social problems
• elimination of the family farm
• concentration of land,
• resources production
• growth of agribusiness its domination over farm
  production
• change in rural/urban migrations
• Excessive use of natural resources

11
(No Transcript)
12
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

• The term sustainable agriculture means an
  integrated system of plant and animal production
  practices having a site-specific application that
  will, over the long term
• satisfy human food and fiber needs
• enhance environmental quality and the natural
  resource base upon which the agricultural economy
  depends
• make the most efficient use of nonrenewable
  resources and on-farm resources and integrate,
  where appropriate, natural biological cycles and
  controls
• sustain the economic viability of farm
  operations and
• enhance the quality of life for farmers and
  society as a whole.

13
FEATURES OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

• Ecological soundness this requires maintenance
  of the quality of natural resources enhancing
  the vitality of the entire agro-system. Soil is
  managed the health of the crops, animals
  people is maintained through biological
  processes. Productive capacity physical
  environment should be maintained for the benefit
  of future generations.
• Economic viability risks are minimised, thus,
  reducing financial inputs expenditure. Farmers
  produce enough for income self-sufficiency.
  Yields of produce must justify inputs.
  Agriculture contributes to GDP _at_ national level.

14

• Adaptable communities should be capable of
  adjusting to the constantly changing conditions
  for farming, changing market demands population
  growth policies through development use of
  new appropriate technologies including social
  cultural changes.
• Humane there must be recognition of the
  fundamental dignity of all human beings,
  preserving the cultural spiritual integrity of
  society a respect for all forms of life.

15

• Socially just/acceptable resources should be
  distributed equitably to meet the basic needs of
  society. Adequate capital, technical expertise
  and market opportunities must be available to
  all. Also farming practices are in harmony w/
  cultural values community needs.

16

• Agricultural practices considered sustainable
  include
• Reduced/minimum tillage
• Crop rotations
• Soil nutrient mgt
• Efficient use of water resources
• Integrated pest, disease weed mgt
• Slope mgt
• Organic farming
• Robert Potter. 2004. The Contemporary Caribbean

17
SUSTAINABLE TRADITIONAL AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES
USED IN THE CARIBBEAN

• Intercropping polyculture symbiotic relations
  tween plants (shade, rooting systems), plant
  diversity encourages natural biological control
  of insect pests, provides year round food supply.
• Crop rotation w/ legumes helps retain soil
  fertility year round food supply, (rotations
  involve red peas, gungo peas, cowpeas, string
  beans etc)

18

• Spatial organisation of crops in fields strip
  cropping, grass barriers, contour planting all
  contribute to soil conservation, planting trees
  to act as wind breaks
• Fallowing helps restore soil fertility if
  sufficient time elapses, helps maintain
  vegetative cover to reduce erosion.
• Mulching helps reduce evapotranspiration soil
  loss from wind erosion, adds nutrients to soil,
  minimises the impact of splash erosion.

19

• Ramming, fly penning integrates crops
  livestock into household production, reduces
  potential erosion by trampling, animal faeces
  manures the land.
• Kitchen gardens food forests traditional types
  of agroforestry.
• Silvo-pasture combining food trees w/ pasture
  e.g. coconuts cattle.

20
AGROFORESTRY

• The intentional combination of agriculture
  forestry to create integrated sustainable land
  use systems.
• Includes intentional use of trees shrubs on the
  same land as agricultural products or livestock
  in some form to create more integrated,
  sustainable, diverse, productive, profitable
  healthy land use systems.
• Egs. Alley cropping, forest farming, silviculture
  and windbreaks.

21

• Another definition It denotes a sustainable land
  crop management system that strives to increase
  yields on a continuing basis, by combining the
  production of woody forestry crops (incl. fruit
  other tree crops) with arable or field crops
  and/or animals simultaneously or sequentially on
  the same unit of land, applying mgt. practices
  that are compatible w/ the cultural practices of
  the local popn.

22

• Biodiversity increases with each stage in the
  development of this succession.
• Forms of agroforestry
• Amazon short term improved fallows w/
  leguminous shrubs, medicinal, or other products
  in low-input tropical systems
• Intensive cash crop with indigenous fruits nuts
  in coffee cocoa in West Africa
• North America contour strips in high-input
  maize/soybeans systems that mitigate erosion
  run-off

23
(No Transcript)
24
CHARACTERISTICS OF AGROFORESTRY

• Four characteristics
• Structure unlike modern agri. forestry, it
  combines trees, crops animals.
• Sustainability it optimises the beneficial
  effects of interactions between woody species
  crops/animals.
• Increased productivity by enhancing
  complementary relations among farm components,
  improved growing conditions efficient use of
  natural resources (space, soil, water, light),
  production is expected to be greater in
  agroforestry systems than conventional land use
  systems

25

1. Socioeconomic/Cultural Adaptability although
   appropriate to a wide range of farm sizes
   socioeconomic conditions, its potential had been
   particularly recognised for small farmers in
   poor, marginal areas of the tropics subtropics.

26
ADVANTAGES

• ENVIRONMENTAL
• A more efficient use is made of the natural
  resources
• The various vegetation layers provide for
  efficient use of solar radiation
• Rooting systems at different depths make good use
  of soil
• Short-lived agri. Crops can profit from enriched
  topsoil due to mineral cycling through treetops.
• If animals are included in system then unused 1o
  production can be used for 2o production
  nutrient cycling

27
ADVANTAGES contd

1. The protective function of trees in relation to
   soil, hydrology plant protection can be
   utilised to decrease the hazards of environmental
   degradation.

28
ADVANTAGES contd

• SOCIO-ECONOMIC
• The total production per unit of land can be
  increased.
• The various components or products of the systems
  might be used as inputs for production of others
  (e.g. wooden implements, green manure) thus the
  amount of commercial inputs investments can be
  decreased.

29

1. Tree products can often be obtained throughout
   the year providing year round opportunities and
   regular income.
2. Various tree products can be obtained in the
   agricultural off-season (e.g. dry season), when
   no opportunities for other kinds of plant
   production are present.

30
CONSTRAINTS

1. Agroforestry systems are ecosystem specific on
   certain low grade soils the choice of suitable
   plants might be limiting, although many trees are
   better adapted to poor soils than annual crops.
2. The competition between trees food crops the
   priority that must be given to them to meet basic
   needs may exclude poor farmers, who have little
   land from tree growing

31

1. An economic constraint is that newly established
   agroforestry systems might need substantial
   investment costs to get started (e.g. planting
   material, soil conservation, fertiliser).
2. Management of livestock can conflict w/
   agroforestry esp. in areas where cattle or goat
   herding is practised.
3. Tenure rights may be a limiting factor.
4. Tree tenure where the land on which trees may be
   planted and protected is not owned by those who
   planted them.

32
EXAMPLES OF AGROFORESTRY

• Classic eg. Home gardens in the tropics
• Mexico
• Huastec Indians manage a number of agricultural
  fallow fields, complex home gardens and forest
  plots totalling about 300 spp.
• Small areas around the houses average 80-125
  useful plant spp., mostly medicinal
• Intensive intercropping with plantation crops
  such as coconut, cacao, coffee rubber
• In India, crops (black pepper, cacao pineapple)
  grown under coconut

33
AGROFORESTRY MANAGEMENT OPTIONS

• ALLEY CROPPING
• Appropriate for home gardens for cultivated
  arable land
• Helpful in the following ways
• Provides green manure or mulch for companion
  crops
• Recycles plant nutrients from deeper soil layers
• Provides prunings, applied as mulch, shade
  during fallow season
• Suppresses weeds

34

• Provides favourable conditions for soil macro
  microorganisms when planted along contours of
  sloping land to provide a barrier for soil
  erosion control
• Provides biologically fixed N to the companion
  crop
• CONTOUR PLANTING
• Useful for the following conditions
• Poor/easily depleted soils
• Sloping (erodible) land as well as non-erodible
  land
• Medium to high popn density

35
To reduce soil water run-off
BENEFITS OF CONTOUR PLANTING
To restore/improve soil nutrient increase
organic material content
To add wood products for home consumption or sale
To spread the risk of crop failure during
extremely dry seasons by moderating the effects
of excessive moisture evaporation on exposed land
36

• Appropriate farming system to use this system
  (contour planting) is a permanent crop
  cultivation, medium to small size farm medium
  to high labour input available per unit of land
• Fast growing spp. can be established at the start
  of the growing season which gives them the
  opportunity to establish while livestock ar kept
  out of the arable areas.
• Altieri, Miguel A. 1995. Agroecology The Science
  of Sustainable Agriculture p. 260

37

• C. Mixed intercropping
• Useful in poor/easily depleted soils, on flat to
  gently sloping land, in areas of medium
  population density.
• Will restore/improve soil nutrients increase
  organic materials.

38
REFERENCES

• http//www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/terms/srb9902.s
  html accessed 5 May 2010
• Waugh, David Geography An Integrated Approach
  4th Edition
• http//www.niassembly.gov.uk/io/research/3801.pdf
• http//www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/naturalr
  esources/DD7407.html
• http//sgp.undp.org/web/images/1558/agroforestry_s
  ystem.html
• http//www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/naturalr
  esources/DD7407.html accessed 11 may 2010
• http//www.unescap.org/EDC/English/Commissions/E65
  /E65_29E.pdf
• Altieri, Miguel A. 1995. Agroecology The Science
  of Sustainable Agriculture p. 260
• Threats to sustainable agri - http//www.hartford-
  hwp.com/archives/25a/007.html accessed 13 May
  2010
• Threats - http//www.wamis.org/agm/meetings/etmner
  06/S4-Sivakumar.pdf
• Organic in Cuba - http//www.foodfirst.org/en/node
  /196 - accessed 13 May 2010
• Globalisation of agri - http//www.hartford-hwp.co
  m/archives/25a/007.html
• http//wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/teacher_resou
  rces/webfieldtrips/sus_agriculture/
• Sust. Agri - https//www.msu.edu/user/dunnjef1/rd4
  91/project.htm accessed 13 May 2010
• http//www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/plantsci/crops/eb48-1.
  htm
• http//www.unescap.org/EDC/English/Commissions/E65
  /E65_29E.pdf
• http//www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/plantsci/crops/eb48-1.
  htm
• Environmental impacts - http//www.ecs.co.sz/env_a
  rticles_eiaagric.htm
• Impacts - http//www.trincoll.edu/cgeiss/tr/tr3/t
  r_3_p7.pdf

39

• http//www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/nacc/education/northe
  ast/ne-edu-3.htm
• http//www.fao.org/docrep/006/y4525e/y4525e08.htm
• http//www.plantmanagementnetwork.org/pub/cm/sympo
  sium/organics/Dabbert/
• Pollution affects on agri - http//www.sos-hills.o
  rg/agriculture/
• Impacts in OECD - http//www.oecd.org/dataoecd/15/
  28/33913449.pdf
• Genetic engineering - http//www.safe-food.org/-is
  sue/ge.html
• GMOs - http//www.icsu.org/1_icsuinscience/GMO/htm
  l/WSSD20chapter_4.htm
• Policies and agriculture - http//www.agnet.org/li
  brary/eb/508/
• Health and agri - http//www.sciencedaily.com/rele
  ases/2007/02/070220145244.htm
• Climate change agri - http//www.grinningplanet.
  com/2007/05-08/effects-of-global-warming-on-agricu
  lture.htm
• Climate change effects on insects and pathogens -
  http//www.climateandfarming.org/pdfs/FactSheets/I
  II.2Insects.Pathogens.pdf
• Increased productivity/technology -
  http//www.perc.org/articles/article307.php
• Tech and agri - http//dfid-agriculture-consultati
  on.nri.org/summaries/dfidwp4.pdf
• http//www.cnr.berkeley.edu/agroeco3/modern_agric
  ulture.html
• http//www.scidev.net/en/policy-briefs/agricultura
  l-technology-transfer-to-developing-cou.html
• http//psep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/fact
  s/mod-ag-grw85.aspx
• Biogas - http//bioenergy.ornl.gov/reports/fuelwoo
  d/chap4.html
• http//sei-international.org/mediamanager/document
  s/Publications/Water-sanitation/opportunitiestoinc
  reasewaterprod2009.pdf
• http//knowledge.cta.int/en/Dossiers/S-T-Issues-in
  -Perspective/Biotechnology-Biosafety/Articles/Biot
  echnology-Relevance-for-Caribbean-Agriculture

40

• http//www.icsu.org/1_icsuinscience/GMO/html/WSSD
  20chapter_4.htm
• http//www.searca.org/web/e_library/asian20journa
  l20of20agriculture20and20development20(vol20
  220nos20120and202)/briones.pdf
• http//www.actionbioscience.org/biotech/altieri.ht
  ml
• http//www.croplife.org/focus_areas
• http//www.bio.org/foodag/background/developingc.a
  sp