Botani kajian saintifik kehidupan tumbuhan.

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Botani kajian saintifik kehidupan tumbuhan.
Sains tumbuhan atau biologi tumbuhan. Tumbuhan
alga dan kulat struktur/anatomi
- tumbesaran
- pembiakan
-
metabolisma
- perkembangan
- penyakit
- pengkelasan/taksonomi/

- fungsi/fisiologi

- evolusi


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Bidang-bidang dalam Botani AgronomyApplication
of plant science to crop production
BryologyMosses liverworts and hornwarts
Economic botanyThe place of plants in economics
EthnobotanyRelationship between humans and
plants ForestryForest management and related
studies HorticultureCultivated plants
PaleobotanyFossil plants PalynologyPollen and
spores PhytochemistryPlant secondary chemistry
and chemical processes PhytomorphologyStructure
and life cycles Plant anatomyCell and tissue
structure Plant ecologyRole of plants in the
environment Plant geneticsGenetic inheritance
in plants Plant pathologyPlant diseases Plant
systematicsClassification and naming of plants
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Pengklasan Saintific atau Pengklasan biologi
adalah kaedah spesis organisma di kumpulkan dan
di kategarikan Taksonomi sifat
fizikal/morfologi Deskripsi kelas dan
penamaan. 1. Kingdom - Plantae 2. Phylum -
Angiospermophyta 3. Class -
Monocotyledonea 4. Order - Liliales 5.
Family - Liliaceae 6. Genus - Allium 7.
Species - sativum (Garlic)
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1. Kingdom - Plantae 2. Phylum - Anthophyta 3.
Class - Monocotyledones 4. Order -
Cyperales 5. Family - Poaceae 6. Genus -
Zea 7. Species - mays (corn)
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Terdapat 10 juta spesis organisma hidup Perlu di
kelaskan sistematik Pada tahun 1753 - Swede
Carolus Linnaeus memperkenalkan binomial
nomenclature untuk menamakan organisma. Terdiri
daripada dua bahagian nama genus (dgn huruf
besar) dan nama spesifik (dgn huruf
kecil) Contoh Cocos nucifera (kelapa) dan
Solanum nigrum (terung meranti). Ganti sistem
panamaan umum
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The kingdom Monera (Bacteria) is the lowest of
the five kindoms from an evolutionary standpoint.
Kingdom Monera is divided into Eubacteria and
Archaebacteria. Ciri-ciri berfotosintesis
mempunyai klorofil a unisel koloni atau
filamen Cyanobacteria/Cyanophyta (alga
hijau biru) Nostoc Anabaena Oscillatoria
spirulina.
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Cell Structure Monerans are unicellular Prokary
otic that is they lack membrane bound
organelles. Still the organism is able to
perform the metabolic functions necessary for
life. They do this using specialized membranes
inside the cell. The cell structure that is
present in monerans is a cell wall. This cell
wall differs from that of a plant however. It is
not made of cellulose but of peptidoglycan a mix
of sugars and proteins.
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Eubacteria Gram-positive and Gram-negative
Gram-positive bacteria have simple cell walls
made of mostly peptidoglycan. Gram-negative
bacteria on the other hand have more complex
cell walls with less peptidoglycan and more
lipopolysaccharides which are carbohydrates
bonded to lipids.
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Motility About half of all bacteria are capable
of directional movement. Three distinct
mechanisms are used for this. The most common is
flagella. Spirocytes have a different method of
locomotion from which their name is derived. They
have several flagella-like filaments in a spiral
around the cell. They use these to move like a
corkscrew. The third method is quite different.
Many bacteria secrete slimy chemicals and move by
gliding along these. Taxis is movement toward or
away from a stimulus. Bacteria have receptors
that detect the presence of oxygen food or
toxins. If nothing is detected the bacteria just
move around randomly.
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Reproduction They do not use mitosis or
meiosis. They reproduce simply by binary fission.
The cell is constantly replicating DNA and
when there is enough the cell splits in two.
Because of this bacteria are capable of vary
rapid reproduction. Nutrition Photoautotrophs C
hemoautotrophs Photoheterotrophs Chemoheterotrophs

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The first of the other kingdoms to diverge from
bacteria was the kingdom protista. Protists are
eukaryotes Most scientists agree that the
development of eukaryotes is due to endosymbiosis
in bacteria - eukaryotic cells. There are three
types of protists. Each resembles one of the
higher kingdoms. Animallike protists are called
protozoans. Plantlike protists are called
algae. Finally there are Funguslike protists
which have no special name.
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Protozoa Protozoa are like animals in that they
are heterotrophic getting nutrition by consuming
other organisms. There are six phyla of
protozoa Rhizopoda - Ameoba Actinopoda
Foraminifera Apicomplexa Plasmodium
(Malarial parasite) Zoomastigophora Euglena
Trypanosoma Ciliophora - Paramecium
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Algae Algae are photosynthetic. Ecologically
they are very important as half of all the
photosynthetic production of organic matter can
be attributed to them. They all use chlorophyll
a but each individual kind uses other pigments.
In fact they are named for their
color. Euglenophyta - Euglena
green Dinoflagellata Dinoflagellates brown
Bacillariophyta - Diatoms - olive brown -
Navicula Chrysophyta - Golden algae - golden
olive Phaeophyta - Brown algae - olive brown
Sargassum Fucus Rhodophyta - Red algae - red to
black - Gracilaria Chlorophyta - Green algae
green Chlamydomonas Spirogyra.
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Volvox (a green alga)       
Dinobyron (a golden alga)  
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Funguslike Protists The funguslike protists are
not that close to fungi evolutionarily but they
do have superficial similarities. There are
three types of funguslike protists. Myxomycota
or plamodial slime molds - Synchytrium Acrasiomyc
ota or cellular slime molds - Hyphochytrium Oomy
cota or water molds - Phytophthora
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The Three Major Divisions of Fungi 1. Zygomycota
- Rhizopus 2. Ascomycota - Sordaria 3.
Basidiomycota Aspergillus Penicillium
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Rhizopus (a zygote fungus)
Morchella (an ascomycete)
Common puffball (a basidiomycete)
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Structure Fungi have cell walls different from
the cell walls of plants. They are made of
chitin not cellulose. Hyphae are minute threads
with tubular walls. The mesh of hyphae is
called mycelium. The cells of the hyphae are
separated by septa which have holes big enough
for organelles to pass through. Some fungi do
not even have septa. They have continuous
cytoplasm and are called coenocytic. The
structure of mycellium is advantageous because it
provides a lot of surface area for absorption.
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Nutrition Fungi digest food externally and then
absorb it. They secrete powerful hydrolytic
enzymes that break down their food making it easy
to absorb and decompose it in the process.
Because of this Fungi are important to their
ecosystem. Habitat Many fungi live on other
organisms in symbiotic relationships. Many are
parasites while others are mutualistic. An
example of this is mychorrhizae. In mychorrhizae
the fungus gets food from the plant and in
exchange helps the plant absorb nutrients from
the soil. Most fungi live in terrestrial
habitats but some do live in aquatic
environments.
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Reproduction Fungi mainly reproduce asexually
using spores which are carried by the wind and
produce clones of the fungus. When conditions
are bad for a fungus it can turn to sexual
reproduction for help. The DNA in the hyphae of
fungi is haploid. When two of these haploid
hyphae fuse sexual reproduction is accomplished.
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Nonvascular Plants The first plants were
nonvascular meaning they did not have a complex
vascular system to transport water to all parts
of the plant. They are called Bryophytes. They
have the early features of plants namely a waxy
cuticle and gametangia. This allowed them to live
on land but not far from the ground. Without a
vascular system the only way to get water is
through diffusion capillary action and
cytoplasmic streaming. While they had some
means of transporting water laterally it was
impossible for them to grow very tall. Still
the reproductive system needed water as the sperm
needed to swim to the egg
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Kelas 1. Hepaticae (lumut hati) - Marchantia 2.
Anthocerotae (lumut kerak) - Anthoceros 3. Kusei
(lumut jati) Politrichum Sphagnum.
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Moss
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Seedless Plants Seedless plants such as ferns
and horsetails were the next in the evolutionary
line. They were the first to have a real
vascular system. The other advance made by the
seedless plants was the dominance of the
sporophyte generation. A plant life cycle
involves two generations a gametophyte and a
sporophyte. This trend of sporopyhte dominance
has extended to plants higher on the evolutionary
ladder.
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Paku pakis peringkat rendah Psilophyta
Psilotum Lycopodophyta Selaginella
Lycopodium Sphenophyta Equisetum Paku pakis
peringkat tinggi Pterophyta Nephrolepis
Ophioglossum
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Equisetum (a horsetail)
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Gymnosperms Gymnosperms are plants that have
seeds that do not develop in ovaries. Rather
they are on cones. This is why gymnosperms are
also called conifers. They are the next
evolutionary stage after the seedless ferns and
horsetails because they have seeds but the
flower had not developed yet. Most gymnosperms
are evergreen trees. Because they are large
they can store a lot of food. They also perform a
little bit of photosynthesis in the winter and
are ready at the start of the spring. The
needle-shaped leaves of conifers are well adapted
to dry climates because they have a thick cuticle
and the stoma are in pits.
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Divisi Cyacadophyta Cycas Ginkgophyta Ginkgo
biloba Coniferophyta Pinus Gnetophyta Gnetum
(melinjau)
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Giant seqoia (a conifer)
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Angiosperms The defining feature of angiosperms
is the flower. The flower is a complex
reproductive structure with a male stamen and a
female carpel. Flowers attract insects and
other animals to pollinate the plant so they do
not need to depend on the wind like gymnosperms.
They also protect the gametes. The ovary in
the carpel develops into a fruit which is then
transported by other animals when they eat it.
Angiosperms also have a better vascular system
involving tracheids which are specialized to
perform a structural supporting role.
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Blue violets (angiosperms)
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Evolutionary Adaptations to Living on Land The
four big evolutionary advances of plants are 1.
Vascular tissue (along with a cuticle and
embryophytes) 2. The diversification of vascular
plants 3. Seeds 4. Flowers
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Protista Chordata Shark Echinodermata Sea
Urchin Arthropoda Spider Annelidia Marine worm
Molluska Scallop Nematoda Nematode
Platyhelminthes Flatworm Cnidaria Jellyfish
Jellyfish Hydra Obelia Porifera Sponge