Theories of Motivation

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Theories of Motivation
An Overview of Some of the Popular Management
Theorists
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Alderfers ERG Theory

• Clayton P Alderfer proposed a hierarchy
  involving three sets of needs
• Existence needs satisfied by such factors as
  food, air, water, pay, and working conditions.
• Relatedness needs satisfied by meaningful social
  and interpersonal relationships.
• Growth needs satisfied by an individual making
  creative or productive contributions.
• Tested by Thematic Apperception Test

ERG Theory
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ERG Theory Relationships Among Frustration,
Importance, and Satisfaction of Needs
Frustration of growth needs
Importance of growth needs
Satisfaction of growth needs
Frustration of relatedness needs
Importance of relatedness needs
Satisfaction of relatedness needs
Frustration of existence needs
Importance of existence needs
Satisfaction of existence needs
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Chris Argyris (1923 -

• Influenced by the humanist approach of Abraham
  Maslow and the socio-technical process of E.
  Wight Bakke.
• Indicated his feelings about how organizations
  neglected human needs.
• If treated like a child one will behave like a
  child result is organizational mediocrity

Chris Argyris
Maturity Immaturity Continuum
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Chris Argyris Personality vs. Organization

• Certain organizational practices, such as the
  division of labor, interfere with the development
  of healthy human personalities.
• These practices promote immature, not mature
  behavior.
• In an attempt to self-actualize, individuals run
  into the obstacles posed by formal organizations.
• The result is defensive behaviors, with
  management reacting by becoming more autocratic
  or by turning to sugar-coated human relations.

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Chris Argyris
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Albert Bandura

• Albert Bandura proposed a social cognitive
  theory (social learning theory self-efficacy
  theory) which refers to an individuals belief
  that they are capable of performing a task.
• Four ways self efficacy can be increased
• Enactive mastery if youve performed task in
  the past, you can do it again
• Vicarious modeling you become more confident
  because you see someone else do the task
• Verbal persuasion you become more confident
  because someone convinces you that you have the
  skills necessary to perform task
• Arousal if you get psyched up then you
  perform better

Social Learning Self-efficacy Social Cognitive
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Abraham Maslow
Maslow defined human needs as Physiological
the need for food, drink, shelter, and relief
from pain. Safety and security the need for
freedom from threat the security from
threatening events or surroundings. Belongingness,
social, and love the need for friendship,
affiliation, interaction, and love. Esteem the
need for self-esteem and for respect from
others. Self-actualization the need to fulfill
oneself by maximizing the use of abilities,
skills, and potential
Hierarchy of Needs
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Maslows Need Hierarchy

• Maslows theory assumes that a person attempts to
  satisfy the more basic needs before directing
  behavior toward satisfying upper-level needs.
• Lower-order needs must be satisfied before a
  higher-order need begins to control a persons
  behavior.
• A satisfied need ceases to motivate.

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Need Hierarchy
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David McClelland
Proposed Theory of Needs Need for Achievement
(nAch) drive to excel, to achieve in relation
to a set of standards Need for Affiliation (nAff)
the desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships Need for Power (nPow) need to
make others behave in a way in which they would
not have behaved otherwise (to have power over
them)
nAch nPow nAff
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McClellands Learned Needs Theory
Achievement (n Ach)
Affiliation (n Aff)
Power (n Pow)
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Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)

• Taught psychology at MIT.
• At Antioch College, McGregor found that his
  classroom teaching of human relations did not
  always work in practice.
• From these experiences, his ideas evolve and lead
  him to recognize the influence of assumptions we
  make about people and our managerial style.

Douglas McGregor
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Theory X

• Management is responsible for organizing the
  elements of productive enterprise money,
  materials, equipment, people in the interest of
  economic ends.
• With respect to people, this is a process of
  directing their efforts, motivating them,
  controlling their actions, modifying their
  behavior to fit the needs of the organization.
• Without this active intervention by management,
  people would be passive even resistant to
  organizational needs. They must, therefore, be
  persuaded, rewarded, punished, controlled their
  activities must be directed. This is
  managements task -- in managing subordinate
  managers or workers. We often sum it up by
  saying that management consists of getting things
  done through other people.

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Theory X

• Behind this conventional theory there are several
  additional beliefs less explicit, but
  widespread
• The average man is by nature indolent he works
  as little as possible.
• He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility,
  prefers to be led.
• He is inherently self-centered, indifferent to
  organizational needs.
• He is by nature resistant to change.
• He is gullible, not very bright the ready dupe
  of the charlatan and the demagogue.

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Theory Y

• Management is responsible for organizing the
  elements of productive enterprise money,
  materials, equipment, people in the interest of
  economic ends.
• People are not by nature passive or resistant to
  organizational needs. They have become so as a
  result of experience in organizations.
• The motivation, the potential for development,
  the capacity for assuming responsibility, the
  readiness to direct behavior toward
  organizational goals are all present in people.
  Management does not put them there. It is a
  responsibility of management to make it possible
  for people to recognize and develop these human
  characteristics for themselves.
• The essential task of management is to arrange
  organizational conditions and methods of
  operation so that people can achieve their own
  goals best by directing their own efforts toward
  organizational objectives.

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Theory X Theory Y

• Work is inherently distasteful to most people.
• Most people are not ambitious, have little desire
  for responsibility, and prefer to be directed.
• Most people have little capacity for creativity
  in solving organizational problems.
• Motivation occurs only at the physiological and
  safety levels.
• Most people must be closely controlled and often
  coerced to achieve organizational objectives.

• Work is as natural as play, if the conditions are
  favorable.
• Self-control is often indispensable in achieving
  organizational goals.
• The capacity for creativity in solving
  organizational problems is widely distributed in
  the population.
• Motivation occurs at the social, esteem, and
  self-actualization levels, as well as
  physiological and security levels.
• People can be self-directed and creative at work
  if properly motivated.

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Frederick Herzberg (1923-2000)

• His research emphasized job enrichment (depth)
  rather than job enlargement
• Job context (hygiene factors) needed to be
  optimal to prevent job dissatisfaction. These
  factors (according to Herzberg) did not motivate.
• Job content (motivators) factors that did lead
  to motivation
• Money (according to Herzberg) could motivate if
  it was seen as a reward for accomplishment but
  if money was given without regard for merit, then
  it was a hygiene factor.

Frederick Herzberg
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Motivation and Hygiene Factors
HYGIENE FACTORS ENVIRONMENT
MOTIVATORS WHAT THEY DO
Achievement Recognition for Accomplishment Challen
ging Work Increased Responsibility Growth and
Development
Policies and Administration Supervision Working
Conditions Interpersonal Relations Money, Status,
Security
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Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory
Intrinsic factors
Extrinsic factors
Factors within the job context
Factors within the job content

• Achievement
• Increased responsibility
• Recognition

• Pay
• Status
• Working conditions

Dissatisfiers Hygiene factors
Satisfiers Motivators
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Traditional and Herzberg Views of Satisfaction -
Dissatisfaction
I. TRADITIONAL
High job satisfaction
High job dissatisfaction
II. HERZBERGS TWO-FACTOR VIEW
High job satisfaction
Low job satisfaction

• Motivators
• Feeling of achievement
• Meaningful work
• Opportunities for advancement
• Increased responsibility
• Recognition
• Opportunities for growth

Low job dissatisfaction
High job dissatisfaction

• Hygienes
• Pay
• Status
• Job security
• Working conditions
• Fringe benefits
• Policies and procedures
• Interpersonal relations

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Frederick Herzberg
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Motivation and Hygiene Factors
THE JOB SURROUNDINGS AND THE HYGIENE FACTORS
SUPERVISION
WORKING CONDITIONS
RESPONSIBILITY
ACHIEVEMENT
BENEFITS
THE JOB ITSELF AND THE MOTIVATOR FACTORS
COMPANY POLICY AND ADMINIS- TRATION
INTER- PERSONAL RELATION- SHIPS
WORK ITSELF
RECOGNITION
GROWTH
ADVANCEMENT
SECURITY
STATUS
SALARY
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A Comparison of the Content Theories
Maslow (need hierarchy) Self-actualization Este
em Belongingness, social, and love Safety
and security Physiological

• Herzberg
• (two-factor theory)
• The work itself
• Responsibility
• Advancement
• Growth
• Achievement
• Recognition
• Quality of inter-
• personal relations
• among peers, with
• supervisors, with
• subordinates
• Job security

Alderfer Growth Relatedness Existe
nce
McClelland Need for achievement Need
for power Need for affiliation
Higher order needs
Motivators
Hygiene conditions
Basic needs
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Work Design

• Richard Hackman, Edward Lawler, and Greg Oldhams
  work extended Herzbergs notions by adding a
  situational (it depends) dimension
• Key job characteristics
• Depending on an individuals growth-need
  strength, these characteristics could be
  amplified to make the job more meaningful.

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Job Characteristics Model
Outcomes (Personal and Work)
Critical Psychological State
Core Job Characteristics
Skill Variety Task Identity Task Significance
Meaningfulness of Work
High Internal Work Motivation High Quality Work
Performance High Satisfaction with Work Low
Absenteeism and Turnover
Responsibility for Outcomes
Autonomy
Knowledge of Results of Work
Feedback About Job
Employee Growth Need
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Motivation Expectancy Theory Victor Vroom

• The expectancy theory of Victor Vroom helps
  explain the choosing process among individuals in
  terms of the value (valence) of the reward and
  the expectancy of receiving the reward.

Victor Vroom
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Expectancy Theory
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Expectancy Theory

• Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler extended Vrooms
  work with their model of expectancy.

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Expectancy Theory (Lyman W. Porter Edward E.
Lawler III)
Revised Diagram of the Theoretical Model
SOURCE Managerial Attitudes and Performance,
1968, Richard D. Irwin Inc.
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Principles of Expectancy Theory

• V1 S(V2 x I)
• The valence associated with various first-level
  outcomes is a sum of the multiplication of the
  valences (V2) attached to all second-level
  outcomes with their respective instrumentalities
  (I)
• M f(V1 x E)
• Motivation is a multiplicative function of the
  valence for each first-level outcome (V1) and the
  perceived expectancy (E) that a given behavior
  will be followed by a particular first-level
  outcome
• P f(M x A)
• Performance is considered to be a multiplicative
  function of motivation (the force) and ability

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Process Theories of MotivationExpectancy Theory
(continued)

• Management practices
• Managers need to focus on employee expectations
  for success.
• Managers must actively determine which
  second-level outcomes are important to employees.
• Managers should link desired second-level
  outcomes to the organizations performance goals.

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Expectancy Theory Example
Valences of second- level outcomes (in
parentheses)
Instrumentalities (how much performance outcome
and second-level outcome are associated
Performance outcome (valences x instrumentalities)
Expectancy (probability of performance
given effort)
Day off (6)
0.6
Finishing budget on time (6.9)
Recognition/compliment from boss (3)
1.0
Mention of performance in personnel record (1)
0.3
0.4
2.76
Day off (6)
0.2
Finishing budget on required day but after
deadline (3.2)
Recognition/compliment from boss (3)
Motivation
0.7
0.7
2.24
Mention of performance in personnel record (1)
-0.1
1.0
.20
Day off (6)
0.0
Finishing budget on day after deadline (.20)
Recognition/compliment from boss (3)
0.2
Mention of performance in personnel record (1)
-0.4
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Equity Theory

• Equity theory is not a new one but focuses on how
  individuals perceive their reward or pay compared
  to what others are receiving.
• Issues of social justice and distributive justice
  are involved in the theories of Stacy Adams and
  Elliot Jaques.

Elliot Jacques
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Process Theories of MotivationEquity Theory

• Employees compare their efforts and rewards with
  those of others in similar work situations.
• Individuals, who work in exchange for rewards
  from the organization, are motivated by a desire
  to be equitably treated at work.
• Equity exists when employees perceive that the
  ratios of their inputs (efforts) to their
  outcomes (rewards) are equivalent to the ratios
  of other similar employees.
• Inequity exists when these ratios are not
  equivalent.

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The Equity Theory of Motivation
OP ORP IP IRP
Compares his/her input/outcome ratio to reference
persons (RP) inputs (I) and outcomes (O)
A person (P) with certain inputs (I) and
receiving certain outcomes (O)
equity

and perceives
or
inequity
OP ORP IP IRP
lt
or
OP ORP IP IRP
inequity
gt
IP Inputs of the person OP Outcomes of the
person IRP Inputs of reference person ORP
Outcomes of reference person
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Managing Across Cultures

• Geert Hofstede (1928 - ) describes cultural
  differences in different countries.
• Individualism vs. collectivism (group
  orientation)
• Power Distance The level of preference for
  equality or inequality within groups
• Uncertainty avoidance The preference for risk
  vs. structure.
• Masculinity (assertiveness) vs. femininity
  (tender values).
• Long term vs. Short term orientation.

Geert Hofstede Courtesy of Prof. Hofstede
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Last Thoughts from Peter Drucker

• I would hope that American managersindeed,
  managers worldwidecontinue to appreciate what I
  have been saying almost since day one that
  management is so much more than exercising rank
  and privilege its so much more than making
  deals. Management affects people and their
  lives, both in business and in many other aspects
  as well. The practice of management deservers our
  utmost attention it deserves to be studied