Language Learning Strategy Use by Arabic Speaking Pre-service Teachers Learning English through Content Areas

1
Language Learning Strategy Use by Arabic Speaking
Pre-service Teachers Learning English through
Content Areas

• Zohreh Eslami, PhD
• Assistant Professor
• Texas AM University-Qatar
• zohreh.eslami_at_qatar.tamu.edu
• Haifa Al-Buainain , PhD
• Associate Professor
• Qatar University
• haifaalbuainain_at_yahoo.comTESOL Arabia, March
  2008

2
Language learning strategies--Learner-initiated

• Learning strategies are a set of operations
  employed by the learner for acquiring, retaining,
  retrieving or performing Rigney, 1978
• Oxford (1990) said learning strategies are
  specific actions taken by the learner to make
  learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more
  self-directed, more effective, more transferable
  to new situations (p. 8).
• According to Stern (1992), the concept of
  learning strategy is dependent on the assumption
  that learners consciously engage in activities to
  achieve certain goals and learning strategies can
  be regarded as broadly conceived intentional
  directions and learning techniques (p. 261).

3
Types of language learning strategies

• Rubin (1987) categorized language learning
  strategies into three types a) Learning
  strategies, b) Communication strategies, and c)
  Social strategies.
• These 3 types of strategies are further divided
  into different groups of strategies. Basically
  the same types of strategies are recognized by
  other scholars such as Oxford, 1990, Stern,
  1992,but they may somewhat be reorganized by
  other scholars.

4
Types of language learning strategies (cont)

• Communication strategies used by language
  learners in order to maintain the flow of an
  ongoing conversation.
• Social strategies indirect learning strategies
  that do not lead to the obtaining, storing,
  retrieving, and using of language but can
  potentially lead to more opportunities of contact
  with the target culture or native speakers of the
  target culture.
• Affective strategies things that language
  learners do and strategies they adopt in order to
  lower their learning anxiety or handle their
  emotional problems.

5
Past studies of language learner strategy use

• One important goal for examining language
  learning strategy use in past studies is to
  understand the cognitive, social, and affective
  processes involved in language learning in order
  to help the less successful language learners
  overcome learning difficulties (Chamot, 2001).
• The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning
  (SILL) developed by Oxford (1990) is widely used
  in the literature as a major instrument. Based on
  SILL, a 50-item (50 strategies) self-report
  questionnaire, language learning strategies are
  grouped into six categories memory, cognitive,
  compensation, metacognitive, affective, and
  social strategies.

6
Past studies of language learner strategy use
(Cont)

• Research has clearly shown that all language
  learners use some kind of learning strategies,
  but depending on such factors as age, gender, and
  cultural origin learners differs in the type of
  strategies used and the frequency of use (Chamot
  Kupper, 1989).
• Using SILL, studies that examined the use of
  language learning strategies among Asian
  students, for example, have found that
  compensation strategies were the most commonly
  used strategies by Chinese ELLs while memory
  strategies were the least used ones (Bedell
  Oxford, 1996 Goh Foong, 1997, Rong, 1999).
• Politzer and McGroarty (1985), on the other hand,
  compared Asian students with Hispanic students
  and found that Asian students tended to use fewer
  of the strategies associated with good language
  learners than did Hispanic students.

7
Past studies of language learner strategy use
(Cont)

• Oxford and Nyikos (1989) studied 1200 university
  students and found that females used language
  learning strategies more than their male
  counterparts.
• Green and Oxford (1995) found that the more
  proficient students adopted significantly more
  language learning strategies in the cognitive,
  compensation, metacognitive, and social
  categories.
• Ku (1997) arrived at similar conclusions in her
  study with 335 college students in Taiwan using
  SILL the more proficient students in her study
  reported using learning strategies more often
  than the less proficient ones.
• Peacock (2001) found that students majoring in
  Physics used far less cognitive strategies than
  the math and engineering students, while math
  students used fewer metacognitive strategies
• Our Study????

8
Research Questions

• 1. What types of language learning strategies are
  most frequently used by Arabic speaking
  pre-service teachers learning English through
  content areas?
• 2. Does the level of English language proficiency
  affect the students choice of language strategy
  and the frequency of use?

9
The study

• Participants27 female Arab students enrolled in
  the Texas AM and Qatar University PEPP (Primary
  Educator Preparation Program)teacher education
  program.
• The students were taking courses in the Texas
  AM and Qatar University teacher education
  program. All the participants had a bachelors
  degree and were going through and intensive one
  year teacher education program. The medium of
  instruction for all courses was English.

10
Research Instruments

• Research Instrument
• Background questionnaire (including the
  self-reported language proficiency scale)
• the Strategy Inventory of Language Learning
  (SILL) by Oxford (1990)
• SILL contains 50 self-report question items
  regarding language learners frequency of
  language learning strategy use. For each of the
  questions, the participants are asked to respond
  on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1
  (never of almost never true of me) to 5 (always
  or almost true of me)
• The SILL is composed of two main groups of three
  strategies each as shown in the following
• Direct Strategies memory strategies, Cognitive
  strategies, and Compensation strategies
• Indirect Strategies Metacognitive strategies,
  Affective strategies, Social strategies

11
Results

• Students reported using metacognitive strategies
  more frequently (M 4.19) than five other types
  of English learning strategies. (table 1 and 2)
• Cognitive and social strategies tied in the
  second place (M 3.81), followed by memory
  strategies (M 3.62), compensation strategies (M
  3.76), and affective strategies (M 3.23).
• Students level of English proficiency is found
  to be correlated with two compensation
  strategies, two metacognitive strategies, and one
  affective strategy.
• Students with higher levels of English
  proficiency, for example, reported that, they
  would use gestures when they cannot think of a
  word during conversation in English (C 25) and
  would use a word or phrase that has equivalent
  meaning as an English word that they cannot think
  of (C 29).

12
Results (Cont)

• Students with higher levels of proficiency were
  also found to be more likely to notice their
  English mistakes and use that information to help
  them do better (D 31) and would try to find out
  how to be a better learner of English (D33)
• Students with higher levels of English
  proficiency were less inclined to talk to someone
  else about how they feel when they are learning
  English.

13
Discussion

• As discussed earlier, students level of English
  proficiency is found to be correlated with two
  compensation strategies, two metacognitive
  strategies, and one affective strategy. The
  result is in line with Klassen (1994) and Yangs
  (1994) research results. These two studies,
  looking at students from Taiwan and China, also
  reported compensation strategies as being the
  most frequently used strategies.
• Our results have shown that students with higher
  levels of English proficiency tend to use more
  compensation and metacognitive strategies and
  therefore are more strategic about their language
  learning. The results have unique significance
  because language proficiency and its improvement
  has been cited as the most important area in
  feeling of self efficacy among NNESTs (nonnative
  English speaking teachers).

14
Discussion

• As Bremner (1999) suggests that the frequent use
  of compensation strategies might be due to the
  learning process. However, this situation may
  possibly result from that lower proficiency
  learners may not have sufficient confidence or
  enough language knowledge to make informed
  guesses. Thus, compensation strategies might be
  more readily available to learners with higher
  levels of proficiency.
• Affective and memory strategies were not used
  widely as reported by our participants. This
  result is similar with the results in Hong-Nam
  and Leavells (2006) study. In their study, they
  found that the least favored strategies by
  participants were affective strategies and memory
  strategies. These participants indicated that
  although they attempted to relax when they were
  uncertain about speaking English, their fears of
  making a mistake often kept them from trying. In
  more group oriented societies with a lot of
  emphasis one face and outside appearance, the
  affective factors may become more of a challenge
  for students. They may fear loosing face and
  therefore do not use any affective strategies,
  and not use risk taking.

15
Discussion

• Memory strategies were the least frequently used
  strategies. Such reflection shows that learners
  are able to move beyond the basic levels of
  memorization of vocabulary and grammar (Hong-Nam
  Leavell, 2006). It is hoped that as learners
  engage in more active management of their
  language learning strategy choices, they use less
  memory strategies.

16
References

• Bremner, S. (1999). Language learning strategies
  and language proficiency investigating the
  relationship in Hong Kong. Canadian Modern
  Language Review, 55 (4), 490-514.
• Bedell, D. A. Oxford, R. L. (1996).
  Cross-cultural comparisons of language learning
  strategies in the Peoples Republic of China and
  other countries. In R. Oxford (Ed.), Language
  learning strategies around the world cross
  cultural perspectives
• Chamot, A.U. (2001). The role of learning
  strategies in second language acquisition. In M.
  P. Breen (Ed.), Learner contributions to language
  learning (pp. 25-43). Harlow, England Longman.
• Chamot, A. U. Kupper, L. (1989). Learning
  strategies in foreign language instruction.
  Foreign Language Annals, 22, 13-24.
• Chang, S-J. (1990). A study of language learning
  behaviors of Chinese students at the University
  of Georgia and the relation of those behaviors to
  oral proficiency and other factors. Unpublished
  doctoral dissertation. University of Georgia,
  Athens, GA.
• Goh, C. C. M. Foong, K. P. (1997). Chinese ESL
  students learning strategies a look at
  frequency, proficiency, and gender. Hong Kong
  Journal of Applied Linguistics, 2 (1), 39-53.
• Green, J. M., Oxford, R. L. (1995). A closer
  look at learning strategies, L2 proficiency and
  gender. TESOL Quarterly, 29 (2), 261-297.
• Hong-Nam, K. Leavell, A. (2006) Language
  learning strategy use of ESL students in an
  intensive English learning context, System, 34(
  3), 399-415.
• Klassen, J. (1994). The language learning
  strategies of freshman English students in
  Taiwan A case study. Paper presented at the
  Third International Symposium and Book Fair on
  English Teaching, Taipei, Taiwan.
• Ku, P. Y. N. (April 1997). Predictors of strategy
  choice by EFL students in Taiwan. Paper presented
  at RELC Seminar, Singapore.
• Oxford, R. L., Nyikos, M. (1989). Variables
  affecting choice of language learning strategies
  by university students. The Modern Language
  Journal, 73 (3), 291-300.

17

• Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning
  strategies What every teacher should know.
  Newbury House, New York.
• Peacock, M. (2001). Language learning strategies
  and EAP proficiency teacher views, student
  views, and test results. In J. Flowerdew and M.
  Peacock (Eds.), Research Perspectives on English
  for Academic Purposes. Cambridge University
  Press.
• Rong, M. (1999). Language learning strategies of
  a sample of tertiary-level students in the P. R.
  China. Guidelines, 21 (1), 1-11.
• Rigney, J.W. (1978). Learning strategies a
  theoretical perspective. In ONeil Jr. H.F.
• (Ed.), Learning Strategies (pp. 165-205).
  Academic Press, New York.
• Rubin, J. (1987). Learner strategies theoretical
  assumptions, research history and typology. In A.
  Wenden and J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in
  language learning (pp. 15-29). Englewood Cliffs,
  NJ Prentice Hall
• Stern, H. H. (1992). Issues and options in
  language teaching. Oxford OUP.
• Yang, N. D. (1994). Study of factors affecting
  EFL learners use of learning strategies an
  investigating of Taiwanese college students.
  Paper presented at the Eleventh National
  Conference on TESOL, Taipei, Taiwan.