CHAPTER 9 INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY

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CHAPTER 9INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY
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Learning Objectives

• What is the psychometric approach to
  intelligence, and how have different psychometric
  theorists defined intelligence?
• What are the traditional measures of
  intelligence, and what are some of the advantages
  and disadvantages of these approaches?
• What are some alternatives to these traditional
  measures of intelligence?

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Defining Intelligence and Creativity

• Our understanding of intelligence has changed
  since the first intelligence tests were created
  in the late 19th century
• There is still no single, universally accepted
  definition of intelligence
• In the psychometric approach, intelligence is a
  trait or set of traits that characterize some
  people to a greater extent than others
• Goal is to identify the traits precisely and to
  measure them so that differences among
  individuals can be described

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Defining Intelligence and Creativity

• In 1927, Spearman proposed a two-factor theory of
  intelligence
• General mental ability (g) that contributes to
  performance on a variety of tasks
• Special abilities (s) that are specific to
  particular tasks
• Catell and Horn proposed two broad dimensions of
  intellect
• Fluid intelligence, the ability to use the mind
  actively to solve novel problems
• Crystallized intelligence, the use of knowledge
  acquired through school and life experiences

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• Caption An item assessing fluid intelligence
  (similar to those in a test called the Raven
  Matrices Test). Which of the numbered pieces
  completes the design?

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Defining Intelligence and Creativity

• Current consensus emerging from research is that
  intelligence is a hierarchy that includes
• At the top, a general ability factor that
  influences how well people do on a range of
  cognitive tasks
• In the middle, a few broad dimensions, such as
  fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence,
  memory capacity, and processing speed
• At the bottom, specific abilities such as
  numerical reasoning, spatial discrimination, and
  word comprehension that also influence how well a
  person performs cognitive tasks that tap these
  specific abilities

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Defining Intelligence and Creativity

• Early version of IQ test was developed by Alfred
  Binet and Theodore Simon
• Permitted testers to describe a childs mental
  age, the level of age-graded problems a child
  could solve
• Binets test became the Stanford-Binet
  Intelligence Scale
• Allowed the calculation of intelligence quotient
  a childs mental age (MA) a childs
  chronological age (CA) IQ
• An IQ of 100 indicates average intelligence

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Defining Intelligence and Creativity

• The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is still
  used
• Its test norms are based on the performance of a
  large representative sample of people, children 2
  years of age through adults
• Test norms standards of normal performance
  expressed as average scores and the range of
  scores around the average

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Defining Intelligence and Creativity

• Wechslers intelligence tests Wechsler Scales
  are also in wide use
• Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
  Intelligence (WPPSI) for children 3 to 8
• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
  (WISC-IV) for children 6 to 16
• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) for
  adults
• Wechsler tests yield a verbal IQ score and a
  performance IQ score

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Defining Intelligence and Creativity

• Scores on the Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler
  Scales form a normal distribution
• Symmetrical bell-shaped spread around the average
  score of 100
• About 2/3 of people taking one of these tests
  score between 85 and 115
• Corresponds to the spread of scores within one
  standard deviation above and below the average
  score
• Fewer than 3 have scores of 130 or above, which
  is used as one criterion of giftedness
• Fewer than 3 have scores below 70, a cutoff used
  to define intellectual disability

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Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences

• Gardner argues that there are at least 8 distinct
  intellectual abilities
• Linguistic language skills
• Logical-mathematical abstract thinking and
  problem-solving
• Musical acute sensitivity to sound patterns
• Spatial accurate perception

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Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences

• 8 distinct intellectual abilities (continued)
• Bodily-kinesthetic skillful use of the body to
  create, perform, etc.
• Interpersonal social intelligence and skill,
  sensitivity to the motivations and moods of
  others
• Intrapersonal understanding of ones own
  feelings and inner life
• Naturalist expertise in the natural world of
  plants and animals

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Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences

• According to Gardner, each of the abilities is
  distinct
• Savant syndrome is a circumstance in which an
  individual has exceptional ability in one area
  but otherwise is mentally retarded
• Abilities may be musical, mathematical

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Sternbergs Triarchic Theory

• Sternberg proposed a triarchic theory of
  intelligence three components that jointly
  contribute to intelligent behavior
• 1) Practical or contextual component
• Varies according to the sociocultural context in
  which it is displayed
• Ability to adapt to the environment

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Sternbergs Triarchic Theory

• 2) Creative component includes
• Response to novelty, which requires active and
  conscious information processing
• Automization, or increased efficiency of
  information processing with practice
• 3) Analytic component
• Information-processing skills that are assessed
  by traditional IQ tests

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• Caption Sternbergs triarchic theory of
  intelligence

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Sternbergs Triarchic Theory

• Sternberg expanded his triarchic theory of
  intelligence to include the theory of successful
  intelligence
• People are intelligent to the extent that they
  have the abilities needed to succeed in life,
  according to their own definition of success
  within their sociocultural context (Sternberg,
  2003, p. xvi)
• These individuals are strong in all three areas
  practical, creative, and analytical
• Smart people optimize their strengths and
  minimize their weaknesses so that they can
  succeed

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Creativity

• Creativity is the ability to produce novel
  responses appropriate in context and valued by
  others
• IQ scores measure convergent thinking,
  converging on the best answer
• Creativity involves divergent thinking, or
  generating a variety of ideas or solutions when
  there is no single correct answer
• Originality or uniqueness of the generated ideas
• Number of different categories expressed by the
  ideas
• Fluency of ideas
• Ideational fluency the sheer number of
  different ideas is easy to score and most often
  used to assess creativity

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Creativity

• Sternbergs confluence approach includes the
  following constituent components in creativity
• Intellectual skills that constitute intelligence
• Knowledge of the field
• A thinking style that is open to new thinking
• Personality characteristics such as calculated
  risk-taking and willingness to pursue and
  overcome obstacles
• Motivation
• An environment that is supportive of creative
  ideas

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Learning Objectives

• What methods have been used to assess infant
  intelligence, and how successful is each method?
• To what extent is infant intelligence related to
  later intelligence?
• Are IQ scores stable during childhood? What
  factors contribute to gains and losses in IQ
  scores?
• What are the typical characteristics of creative
  children?

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The Infant Developmental Quotients

• Bayley Scales of Infant Development the most
  widely used infant test
• Used for infants from 1 to 42 months
• Motor scale measures the infants ability to do
  such things as grasp a cube and throw a ball
• Mental scale measures adaptive behaviors such
  as reaching for an object
• Behavior rating scale measures behaviors such
  as goal-directedness, emotional regulation,
  social responsivity
• The infants developmental quotient (DQ)
  summarizes how the infant performs in comparison
  with a large norm group of age-peer infants

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Infant Intelligence and Later Intelligence

• Scales such as the Bayley are useful in charting
  developmental progress, and in diagnosing
  neurological conditions and mental retardation
• However, researchers find low or no correlations
  between infant DQ and child IQ
• Researchers have found that later IQ can be
  predicted by
• Measures of infant attention, such as speed of
  habituation and preference for novelty
• Fast reaction time

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How Stable Are IQ Scores During Childhood?

• DQs do not predict later IQs
• Beginning at age 4, there is a fairly strong
  relationship between early and later IQ
• Many children show sizeable ups and downs in
  their IQ scores during childhood
• Patterns of change differ considerably from child
  to child
• Nevertheless, researchers conclude that within a
  group, childrens standings (high or low) in
  comparison with peers stay stable from one point
  to another during the childhood years

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The Child Causes of Gain and Loss

• Children whose IQ scores fluctuate the most tend
  to live in unstable home environments
• Noticeable drops in IQ with age often occur among
  children who live in poverty
• Klineberg (1963) proposed a cumulative-deficit
  hypothesis explanation impoverished environments
  inhibit intellectual growth, and these negative
  effects accumulate over time
• Children whose IQ scores increase seem to have
  parents who foster achievement and whose
  parenting is neither too strict nor too lax

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The Child The Emergence of Creativity

• The course of creativity during childhood
• Preschoolers display fairly high levels of
  divergent thought
• Creativity begins to decline at entry to
  kindergarten and first grade
• Creativity declines even further by fourth grade
  (the fourth-grade slump)
• Levels of divergent thinking rise again after age
  12
• Variations are not as large as once believed
• May reflect the demands of school and peers to
  conform to the group

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The Child The Emergence of Creativity

• Researchers compared creative children of
  normal-range IQ with children who scored high in
  IQ but not in creativity
• The creative children showed more freedom,
  originality, humor, aggression, and playfulness
• Engage in more fantasy or pretend play, active
  imaginations, often invent new uses for objects
  or new roles for themselves, are open to new
  experiences and ideas, and have parents who
  tolerate their unconventional ideas
• Unconventional responses are not always
  appreciated in the conventional classroom

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The Child The Emergence of Creativity

• Research suggests that certain qualities of the
  home environment may influence childrens and
  adolescents creativity
• Parents who tend to value nonconformity and
  independence, accept their children as they are,
  encourage their curiosity and playfulness, and
  grant them a good deal of freedom to explore new
  possibilities on their own
• Early studies suggested that for some creative
  individuals, childhood adversity was a driving
  force behind their creativity

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Learning Objectives

• How well do IQ scores predict school achievement?
  
• To what extent is IQ related to occupational
  success?

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The Adolescent

• Brain development in early adolescence enables
  formal operations, improved memory and
  information-processing skills, and better
  performance on IQ tests
• IQ scores become more stable and predict IQ in
  middle age
• In childhood and adolescence, IQ scores are a
  good predictor of school achievement
• Better predictor of high school grades than of
  college grades

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The Adolescent Fostering Creativity

• Adolescents often regain creativeness they had as
  preschoolers and can produce highly creative work
• The developmental course of creativity is not as
  predictable or steady as measures of IQ
• Seems to change in response to developmental
  needs and task demands
• Adolescents report increased creative feelings
• Curiosity, imagination, willingness to take
  calculated risks

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The Adolescent Fostering Creativity

• Studies suggest that creative children and
  adolescents have
• Talent
• Motivation to develop their talents
• Willingness to take risks
• Ability to deal with ambiguity without becoming
  frustrated
• Environments that recognize, value, and nurture
  creativity

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Learning Objectives

• How do IQ and mental abilities change with age?
• What factors predict declines in intellectual
  abilities in older adults?
• To what extent does wisdom exist in older adults?
• How does creativity change throughout adulthood?

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The Adult IQ and Occupational Success

• Research reveals strong relationships between IQ
  and factors that represent occupational success
  such as
• Income
• Occupational prestige
• Complexity of work
• Job performance ratings

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The Adult IQ and Health

• Those with higher IQ scores tend to be healthier
  and live longer than those with lower scores
• Common explanation is socioeconomic status
• Better jobs provide resources for better
  healthcare
• However, effective management of personal health
  requires abilities such as learning and
  problem-solving a certain amount of
  intelligence

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The Adult Changes in IQ with Age

• In Kaufmans study (2001),
• Cross-sectional data showed that IQs rise
  slightly until the mid-40s and then decline
• Steepest declines begin around age 80
• Longitudinal data suggested that intellectual
  abilities decline with age
• In both the cross-sectional and the longitudinal
  studies, verbal IQ changed little with age, at
  least until people reached their 80s
• However, performance IQ peaked by ages 20-24 and
  then steadily declined

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• Caption IQ scores by age, showing a slow decline
  starting about age 55

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The Adult Changes in IQ with Age

• K. Warner Schaie (1996, 2005) tested adults aged
  22-70 on five mental abilities
• Verbal meaning
• Spatial ability
• Reasoning
• Numerical ability
• Word fluency
• Sequential design used longitudinal and
  cross-sectional data

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The Adult Changes in IQ with Age

• Findings from Schaies study
• Cohort or generational effects on performance
  exist
• Affected by amount and quality of education
• Patterns of aging differ for different abilities
• Fluid intelligence usually declines earlier and
  more steeply than crystallized intelligence
• Starting in middle age, problem-solving may be
  impaired, but general knowledge and vocabulary
  are retained

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• Caption Schematic rendering of fluid
  intelligence and crystallized intelligence over
  the lifespan

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The Adult Changes in IQ with Age

• Findings from Schaies study (continued)
• Declines in intellectual abilities are not
  universal
• Among the 81-year-olds, only 30-40 had
  experienced significant decline in the previous 7
  years
• Few 81-year-olds maintained all five mental
  abilities, but almost all retained at least one
  ability and almost half retained four of five
  abilities
• Summary the range of differences in intellectual
  functioning among older adults is extremely large

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The Adult Predictors of Decline

• Declines in intellectual performance in old age
  are related to the following factors
• Poor health
• Diseases and possibly the drugs used to treat
  them contribute to the terminal drop (a rapid
  decline in intellectual abilities within a few
  years of death)
• Unstimulating lifestyle
• Schaie found that the greatest intellectual
  declines were shown by elderly widows who had low
  social status, few activities, and
  dissatisfaction with their lives live alone and
  seemed disengaged
• Those who maintained or gained tended to have
  above-average SES, advanced education, intact
  marriages, intellectually capable spouses, and
  physically and mentally active lifestyles

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The Adult Potential for Wisdom

• Definitions of wisdom
• Baltes and colleagues a constellation of rich
  factual knowledge about life combined with
  procedural knowledge such as strategies for
  giving advice and handling conflicts that permit
  someone to offer exceptional insight, judgment,
  and advice about complex and uncertain matters
• Sternberg a wise person is someone who can
  combine successful intelligence with creativity
  to solve problems that require balancing multiple
  interests or perspectives

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The Adult Potential for Wisdom

• A study to assess the relative contributions of
  age and specialized experience to wisdom revealed
  that
• Wisdom was rare and not predicted by age
• Expertise life experiences contributed to the
  development of wisdom
• Wisdom seems to reflect a combination of
  intelligence, personality, and cognitive style
• A supportive social environment in early
  adulthood was positively associated with wisdom
  40 years later

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The Adult Creative Endeavors

• Research reveals a typical pattern for creative
  careers to develop
• Creative production typically increases steeply
  from the 20s to the late 30s or early 40s
• Creative production gradually declines thereafter
• Peak times of creative achievement vary from
  field to field
• Productivity by scholars in the humanities peaks
  in the 60s and continues into old age
• Scientists peak in their 40s and decline in their
  70s
• Productivity in the arts peaks in the 30s and 40s
  and declines steeply thereafter

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The Adult Creative Endeavors

• Theories to explain changes in creative
  production over the adult years
• People in their 30s and 40s have both the
  enthusiasm and the experience needed for creative
  achievement
• Simonton (1999) suggested that creative activity
  involves two processes, but the two processes
  might not be manifested at the same time
• Ideation generating creative ideas
• Elaboration executing ideas to produce poems,
  paintings, or scientific publications
• Simonton suggested that creative production
  tapers off because older creators have fewer
  potential ideas

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Learning Objectives

• What evidence shows genetic influence on IQ
  scores?
• What other factors influence IQ scores?

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Factors that Influence IQ Scores Flynn Effect

• Genetic and environmental factors interact to
  influence IQ
• Flynn effect during the 20th century, in all
  countries studied, average IQ scores increased by
  3 to 4 points per decade
• Full-scale IQ scores increased by 18 points over
  50 years
• Due to improved nutrition and living conditions,
  more focused attention from parents, and better
  education

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• Caption Flynn effect

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Factors that Influence IQ Scores Genes and
Environment

• Researchers find that about half of the variation
  in IQ scores within a group of individuals is
  associated with genetic differences among them
• But a genetic influence upon intelligence does
  not mean that IQ is unresponsive to the
  environment
• Sameroff and colleagues (1993) identified risk
  factors that affect IQ, and the greater the
  number of these risk factors affecting a child,
  the lower the IQ

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Factors that Influence IQ Scores Genes and
Environment

• Researchers use the Home Observation for
  Measurement of the Environment (HOME) inventory
  to assess the intellectual stimulation of
  childrens home environment
• Most important factors are
• Parental involvement with the child
• Opportunities for stimulation
• Stimulation should be responsive to the childs
  behavior and matched to the childs competencies

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Factors that Influence IQ Scores Genes and
Environment

• Parents with greater intelligence are more likely
  than less intelligent parents to provide
  intellectually stimulating home environments for
  their children and to pass on to their children
  genes that contribute to high intelligence
• Genes and environments are combined in ways that
  allow children with particular genetic make-ups
  to display high intelligence under some
  environmental conditions
• Intellectual development is best when a
  motivated, intellectually capable child gets
  intellectual nourishment from involved and
  responsive parents

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Factors that Influence IQ Scores Poverty

• Poverty is defined by low family income
• Child poverty includes low levels of meeting
  childrens basic needs
• Inadequate health and dental care and nutrition
• Live in overcrowded, unsafe neighborhoods
• Families experience chronic stress
• Relationships with parents may not be as
  affectionate or supportive as they could be
• Lack opportunities for cognitive stimulation

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Factors that Influence IQ Scores Poverty

• Children who live in poverty average 10-20 points
  below middle-class age-peers on IQ tests
• In all racial and ethnic groups
• Research finds that improving the economic
  conditions of childrens homes can improve their
  IQs
• The brain has neuroplasticity is responsive to
  environmental change

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Factors that Influence IQ Scores Race and
Ethnicity

• A controversial finding using samples from
  numerous countries racial and ethnic
  differences in IQ scores
• In the US, Asian-American and European-American
  children tend to score higher, on average, on IQ
  tests than African-American, Native-American, and
  Hispanic-American children.

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Factors that Influence IQ Scores Race and
Ethnicity

• Hypotheses for these differences
• Culture bias in testing
• IQ tests may be more appropriate for children
  from middle-class backgrounds than for children
  from other subcultural groups
• Minority-group children often do not have as much
  exposure to the culture reflected in the tests as
  nonminority children do
• Using IQ tests designed to be fair to all ethnic
  groups and introducing procedures to help
  minority children feel more comfortable and
  motivated can cut the usual IQ gap between
  African-American and European-American children
  in half

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Factors that Influence IQ Scores Race and
Ethnicity

• Hypotheses for these differences (continued)
• Motivational differences
• Possibly minority individuals are not motivated
  to do their best in testing situations because
  they are anxious or resist being judged by an
  examiner who is often of a different
  racial/ethnic background

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Factors that Influence IQ Scores Race and
Ethnicity

• Hypotheses for motivational differences
  (continued)
• African Americans may be likely to suffer
  whenever negative stereotypes of their group come
  into play
• Steele concluded that African Americans perform
  poorly on IQ tests partly because of stereotype
  threat fear that they will be judged to have
  the qualities associated with negative
  stereotypes of African Americans

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Factors that Influence IQ Scores Race and
Ethnicity

• Hypotheses for motivational differences
  (continued)
• Walton and Spencers (2009) meta-analyses found
  that stereotype thread seems to account for 40
  points on the score gap between majority
  (European-American) and minority
  (African-American and Hispanic-American) students
  on the SAT, the standardized test taken by many
  college-bound high school students

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Factors that Influence IQ Scores Race and
Ethnicity

• Hypotheses for differences (continued)
• The question of whether genetic differences
  between racial/ethnic groups accounts for
  different levels of performance is extremely
  controversial
• The average differences between racial groups
  likely reflects differences in the environments
  they typically experience
• There is no direct evidence that differences in
  genetic makeup between the races account for
  average group differences in IQ scores

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Factors that Influence IQ Scores Race and
Ethnicity

• Hypotheses for differences (continued)
• It is likely that many of the intellectual and
  academic differences attributed to race or
  ethnicity probably reflect racial and ethnic
  differences in socioeconomic status
• Research has shown that placement in more
  advantaged homes has allowed lower-income
  African-American children to equal or exceed the
  average IQ in the general population and to
  exceed the IQs of comparable African-American
  children raised in more disadvantaged environments

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Factors that Influence IQ Scores Race and
Ethnicity

• Summary
• Children in all racial/ethnic groups perform
  better on IQ tests when they grow up in
  intellectually stimulating environments with
  involved, responsive parents and are exposed to
  the culture of the tests and the schools
• Racial differences in IQ scores are best
  explained by the fact that more African-American
  than European-American children live in poverty
  and have limited learning opportunities at home
• Reducing poverty and offering more early
  developmental programs to offset the costs of
  impoverished home environments would go a long
  way toward eliminating racial differences in
  intellectual performance

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Learning Objectives

• How are mental retardation and giftedness
  defined?
• What are the outcomes for individuals who are
  mentally retarded or gifted?

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The Extremes of Intelligence Intellectual
Disability

• Intellectual disability is defined as
  significantly below-level average intellectual
  functioning with limitations in areas of adaptive
  behavior such as self-care and social skills,
  originating before age 18
• Intellectual disability is indicated by an IQ
  score of 70-75 and difficulties in meeting
  age-appropriate expectations in important areas
  of everyday functioning
• Intellectual disability is the product of the
  interaction between person and environment and is
  influenced by the type and level of support the
  individual receives

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The Extremes of Intelligence Intellectual
Disability

• Causes of intellectual disability
• Organic conditions
• Biological causes associated with hereditary
  factors, diseases, or injuries
• Prenatal risk factors such as maternal alcohol
  use
• No identifiable organic cause
• Combination of genetic and environmental factors

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The Extremes of Intelligence Intellectual
Disability

• Historically about 3 of children have been
  classified with intellectual disability
• Often have associated impairments such as
  cerebral palsy, behavioral problems, physical
  problems, or sensory disorders
• Milder cases of intellectual disability may be
  diagnosed when toddlers fail to meet
  developmental milestones at a typical age

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The Extremes of Intelligence Intellectual
Disability

• Generally those determined to have a level of
  intellectual disability proceed along the same
  paths and through the same sequences of
  developmental milestones as other children do,
  although often at a slower rate
• Results of the Camberwell Cohort revealed that
  combination of intellectual disability and social
  impairment led to a poor or fair overall outcomes
• Those who were less intellectually disabled and
  did not have associated impairments had more
  favorable outcomes.
• Results revealed that overall quality of life was
  lower for the adults diagnosed with intellectual
  disability early in life

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The Extremes of Intelligence Giftedness

• The current definition of giftedness involves
  having a high IQ or showing special abilities in
  areas valued by society, such as mathematics,
  leadership, or the performing or visual arts
• Giftedness is usually apparent by toddlerhood
• Characterized by advanced language skills,
  curiosity and motivation to learn, rapid
  learning, good memory, long attention span,
  perfectionism, preference for older companions,
  maturity, perseverance on tasks

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The Extremes of Intelligence Giftedness

• Early emergence of giftedness is consistent with
  research that connect high intellect with a
  strong genetic component
• Terman (1954) followed the development of gifted,
  high IQ children in a longitudinal study and
  found that the participants
• Learned to walk and talk sooner than other
  toddlers
• Reached puberty somewhat earlier than average and
  had better-than-average health
• Were rated by their teachers as better adjusted
  and more morally mature
• Were quick to assume leadership responsibilities
• As adults, had low rates of problems that
  indicate maladjustment
• As adult men, achieved significant occupational
  success
• Aged well, working longer, and were active and
  engaged