MACROMOLECULES

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MACROMOLECULES

• Macromolecules (1000s of atoms and weigh over
  100,000 daltons)
• 4 Kinds of macromolecules Carbohydrates, lipids,
  proteins, and nucleic acids (know this in your
  sleep!)

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MACROMOLECULES ARE

• POLYMERS chainlike molecules made up of -
• MONOMERS (the repeated units)
• Diversity of Polymers different sequences of
  the basic 40-50 monomers

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How do monomers make polymers?

• Condensation /Dehydration reaction
• One monomer provides an OH and the other
  provides a -H and together these form H2O
• H2O is REMOVED Covalent bond is formed between
  MONOMERS Polymers are made!
• Needs ATP and Enzymes
• Anabolic/biosynthesis reactions use this to make
  macromolecules for growth/replacement

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How do polymers break up?

• Hydrolysis Reaction
• Covalent Bond is broken H2O is added across the
  broken bond
• Polymers make Monomers
• Provides ATP and Uses Enzymes
• Used for digestion, cell respiration

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I) Sugars are all - Carbohydrates

• Monomer Unit of Carbohydrates called
  Monosaccharides
• Polymer called Polysaccharide
• General formula CH2On
• For example, glucose has the formula C6H12O6.
• Most names for sugars end in -ose.

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SUCROSE (from cane sugar)
FRUCTOSE (from FRUIT!!)
MALTOSE (from Malt a fermentation product)
DEXTROSE (glucose)
LACTOSE (from MILK)
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Monosaccharide Classification Overview

• Based on Aldehyde or Ketone Functional group
  (aldose/ketose)
• Number of Carbon atoms (pentose, hexose)
• Arrangement of Carbon Atoms - Isomers
• Straight chain or ring structure
• Know how to identify a simple sugar/monosachcharid
  e by sight as a ring structure and a straight
  chain structure
• Know the glycosidic linkage is represented as an
  -O- when 2 monosachcharides are connected

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Monosaccharide Classification

• 1) Based on Functional Group
• KETOSE Ketone function group (CO)
• ALDOSE Aldehyde functional group
• (-CHO)

GLUCOSE
FRUCTOSE
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Monosaccharide Classification

• 2) Based on Number of Carbons
• HEXOSE 6 C
• PENTOSE 5 C
• TRIOSE 3C

GLUCOSE (6)
RIBOSE (5)
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Monosaccharide Classification

• 3) Based on Arrangement of Carbon Atoms
• Enantiomers Isomers (Glucose and Galactose)
• No test ques. on this for your level!

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Monosaccharide Classification

• 4) Based on Ring Structure Linear monomers form
  rings in solutions
• (Alpha and Beta Rings based on plane of OH
  -skip details)

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Monosaccharide to Disaccharide(dehydration
reaction)
- Important Disaccharides (Sucrose table sugar,
Lactose Milk, Maltose Beer)


Glucose
Fructose


Sucrose

Galactose

Lactose
Glucose

Maltose
Glucose

Glucose
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Monosaccharide to Disaccharide

• A Glucose monomer and a fructose monomer can be
  joined using a GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE to form SUCROSE
  (know to identify this link)
• SUCROSE is a DISACCHARIDE

SUCROSE
Fructose
Glucose
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Monosaccharide to Disaccharide

• A Glucose monomer and a fructose monomer can be
  joined using a GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE to form SUCROSE
• SUCROSE (table sugar) is a DISACCHARIDE

Fructose
SUCROSE
Glucose
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Monosaccharide to Polysaccharide
- 1000s of monosaccharides join up to form
POLYSACCHARIDES

G
G

G

G




Polysaccharide
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Carbohydrate Review
Monosacharrides Disacharrides (glucose,
fructose) (sucrose, lactose)
Condensation/dehydration reaction Polysacharrides
Structural Storage Cellulose
Starch (Plant) Chitin
Glycogen (Animals)


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a) Storage Polysaccharides

• 1) STARCH (in potatoes stored NRG in plants)
• MONOMER is Glucose
• Links up to form starch many, many glucose
  molecs)

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a) Storage Polysaccharides

• 1) STARCH has 2 polymers (skip details)
• 1-4 ? linkage of Glucose Monomers (amylose
  -helical)
• 1-6 ? linkages causes branching (amylopectin)

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a) Storage Polysaccharides

• 2) GLYCOGEN
• (in animals stored ATP in muscle and liver)
• MONOMERS Glucose

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b) Structural Polysaccharides

• 1) CELLULOSE
• (in plant cell wall)
• Monomers-Glucose
• ?1-4 linkage

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b) Structural Polysaccharides

• 2) CHITIN
• (in exoskeleton of arthropods)
• Monomers-Glucose
• Glucose has a -N group attached

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Starch Test Lugols Iodine
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Benedicts Test

• Will be positive for Reducing Sugars
  (monosaccharides, disaccharides except sucrose)

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Benedicts Test

• CuSO4 Cu SO4--  
• 2 Cu    Reducing Sugar Cu        
  (electron donor)
• Cu Cu2O

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II) Lipids

• Lipids are hydrophobic
• (mostly hydrocarbons)
• They are NOT polymers
• Important classes FATS, PHOSPHOLIPIDS, and
  STEROIDS

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FATS

• Fats are triglycerides - have glycerol and
  fattyacids linked up by an ester bond
• Glycerol is a 3C alcohol
• Fatty acid is RCOOH and can have long hydrophobic
  C-H chains- these can have double bonds or single
  bonds or a mixture

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Saturated fats - solids at room temp. - have all
Carbons SATURATED - that means every carbon has
max. number of hydrogen attached Ex.
butter Unsaturated fats - liquid at room temp. -
have some Carbons UNSATURATED - that means DOUBLE
BONDS from some carbons having less than max.
number of hydrogen attached Ex. Oil.
DOUBLE BONDS freedom of movement!
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CARCINOGENIC
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Artherosclerosis-plaque in artery
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Fat Substitutes

• Olestra - sucrose (sugar) with fatty acids (No
  digestion!!)
• Hydrogenated Vegetable Oils Peanut Butter,
  Shortening, Margarine

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Fat Functions

• Energy Storage (1 gm of fat 2 gm starch fat- 4
  cal/gm)
• Plants use starch to store energy (bulky) seeds
  have oil
• Animals store energy as fat
• Insulation Protect vital organs
• Absorption of Vitamins K, E, D, A

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Phospholipids

• Fatty acids (hydrophobic) glycerol phosphate
  group polar group (hydrophilic)
• The fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, but the
  phosphate group and its attachments form a
  hydrophilic head
• -know to recognize it!

• Two fatty acids attached to glycerol and a
  phosphate group at the third position

• Phosphate Group is ve
• R fatty acid hydrocarbon chain
• X other groups

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Steroids

• Consist of 4 fused rings
• Cholesterol, sex hormones
• Vary in functional groups

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Lipid Test

• Brown paper turns translucent with lipid (grease
  test)
• Sudan IV Test

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Proteins

• Proteios first place!!
• Polymers made up of Amino Acid Monomers

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Amino Acids

• Have Carboxyl (COOH) and amino groups (NH2)
• Center Alpha Carbon
• R 20 different possibilities 20 amino acids
• Ionized at neutral pH inside the cell (COO- and
  NH3)

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Amino Acids

• Hydrophobic R groups

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Amino Acids

• Hydrophilic Polar R groups

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Amino Acids

• Electrically charged R groups (Acidic/ Basic
  also hydrophilic)

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Amino Acids

• Peptide Bond Formation (OC-NH) Dehydration
  reaction linking amino acid monomers into a
  polypeptide chain- know this bond!

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Amino Acids

• Primary Structure Sequence of amino acid chain -
  is it Val-His-Leu or Val-Glu-Leu.
• Change in Primary Structure can cause protein to
  function abnormally (DUH!)

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Amino Acids
Lysozyme

• Secondary Structure Result of H Bonding between
  OC and N-H (atoms in this secondary structure
  are in the polypeptide backbone)
• ? Helix (coils) every 4th aa linked
• ? Pleated Sheets (folds)

? Helix
? Pleated Sheets

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Amino Acids

• Tertiary Structure Result of H Bonding between
  side chain R groups
• H bonds among polar and/or charged groups
• ionic bonds between charged R groups, and
  hydrophobic interactions
• and van der Waals interactions among hydrophobic
  Rgroups
• Disulfide Bridges (know this is important in
  tertiary structure!)

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Amino Acids

• Quarternary Structure Result of noncovalent
  interactions between polypeptide chains
• Dimers, Trimers, Tetramers aggregations of many
  polypeptide subunits

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Why is folding important?

Diseased prions induce healthy prion proteins to
change their shape, and clusters of disease
build, leaving holes in the brain. SF
Chronicle

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Denaturation

• Protein Denaturation Loss of biological
  activity
• Loss of Native Confirmation/folding due to
  changes in pH, salt concentration, temperature
• Protein can come back to original confirmation
  (Renatured)

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Chaperonins

• The folding of many proteins is protected in
  cells by chaperonin proteins that shield out bad
  influences.

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Biuret Test

• Biuret Reagent has CuSO4 and KOH
• Blue-violet proteins
• Purple/pink peptides
• Will not detect free amino acids

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Nucleic Acids

• Amino Acid Sequence of a Polypeptide is coded by
  a GENE
• A gene is a specific sequence of DNA
• DNA is made of Nucleic Acids

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Nucleic Acids

• GENE codes for a messenger RNA in the nucleus
• mRNA is translated in the cytoplasm
• Protein is synthesized using the mRNA

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Nucleic Acids

• DNA and RNA are Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic Acids are Polymers
• The monomers are called NUCLEOTIDES

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Nucleotides

• NUCLEOTIDES are made of
• Pentose Sugar
• Nitrogen Base
• Phosphate group

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Nucleotides- Nitrogen Base

• Nitrogen Base can be of 2 types
• Purine 2 rings Adenine and Guanine
• Pyrimidine 1 ring Cytosine, Uracil, and
  Thymine

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Nucleotides- Nitrogen Base

• Purines and Pyrimidines bond with each other
• A can form a bond with T or U
• G can form a bond with C

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Nucleotides-Sugar

• Pentose Sugar is Ribose
• DNA has Deoxy Ribose
• RNA has Ribose

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Nucleosides-No Phosphate group

• Pentose Sugar Nitrogen Base

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Nucleotides

• Pentose Sugar Nitrogen Base Phosphate

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Nucleotides join together to make Nucleic Acids
Sugar Phosphate backbone
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DNA is a double helix 2 strands are
complementary
1953
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DNA Spooling