THE FUTURE OF SWIMMING: MYTHS AND SCIENCE

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THE FUTURE OF SWIMMING MYTHS AND SCIENCE
Brent S. Rushall, Ph.D., R.Psy. The full text of
this presentation is available for one week as a
.pdf download from http//coachsci.sdsu.edu/swimmi
ng/ASCA2009.pdf
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FACTS FROM ACCEPTABLE SCIENCE The major source of
reliable information
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FOUR SOURCES OF COACHING INFORMATION

• ARMCHAIR THEORIZING
• Appeal to authority
• Self-evident truths
• Intellectual tenacity

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FOUR SOURCES OF COACHING INFORMATION (continued)

• SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• Verification by replicated objective data.

Distrust anything that contradicts science or
outrages reason." Christopher Hitchens
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A DOWNSIDE OF THE INFORMATION AGE

• Web-based self-appointed authorities
• False claims about research and results
• Easy accessibility

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Yet another threatTHE INCURSION OF POOR SPORTS
SCIENCE

• Scientific standards have decreased
• Motives for publication often supplant the quest
  for truth

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• EVIDENCE-BASED RESEARCH IS THE MOST VALUABLE
  SOURCE OF RELIABLE INFORMATION

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CLUSTERS OF DISCRETE SPORT SCIENCE INFORMATION
EXIST

• Pre-pubertal
• Male adolescent
• Female adolescent
• Male mature
• Female mature

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DISCRETE COACHING PRINCIPLES LEAD TO PARADOXES

• Two examples of the scope of paradoxes
• Requirements for conditioning differ between
  mature and immature swimmers.
• Technical aspects of skills differ between the
  genders and swimmers of different maturational
  ages.

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TOPIC 1 PHYSIOLOGY/CONDITIONING
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THE PROPAGATION OF PHYSIOLOGICALCONDITIONING

• Most physiological schemes are simple and easy
  to understand but possibly a little more
  difficult to implement.
• National organizations, swimming experts, and
  coaches propagated training systems and provided
  belief-based literature and coaching aids for
  implementing physiological conditioning.

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THE PROPAGATION OF PHYSIOLOGICALCONDITIONING
(continued)

• Coaches of many high-profile and successful
  swimmers attempted to explain swimmers'
  achievements in "scientific" terms and usually
  resorted to physiological descriptions of
  training programs that were based largely on
  belief and never on data.
• Coaches educated at the tertiary level in
  physical education, human movement studies,
  exercise science, or kinesiology degrees most
  often were exposed to courses of study that
  emphasized exercise physiology to a much greater
  degree than any other scientific factor involved
  in movement. That emphasis reinforced a
  perception of exercise physiology being the most
  important path for altering human movement.

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WHAT RESEARCH TELLS US

• Prescribed training intensities are not
  followed by athletes. What a coach says is
  completed at training is not necessarily what
  actually is done by the swimmers.
• High-yardage training and dryland training
  demands are unrelated to or negatively impact
  male swimming performances. Current training
  theory is unrelated to male competitive
  performances.
• Muscle fiber use and energy delivery differs
  between sprint events. There is no single
  energy-oriented method for training sprinters.

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WHAT RESEARCH TELLS US (continued)

• Training effects vary greatly and depend upon
  the actual set swum. Just what is achieved
  through a program with training "variety" is
  unknown but is more than likely unrelated to a
  competitive swimming event.
• Anaerobic work capacity and indices are
  unrelated to swimming performances and are
  difficult to determine in swimming.
• Physiological capacities have limited (ceiling)
  levels of adaptation and after they have been
  achieved no further benefits are possible. The
  coaching belief that performance improvements
  will occur if more or harder training is
  experienced has no basis in physiology. The
  potential to improve through conditioning effects
  stops once growth has ceased.

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WHAT RESEARCH TELLS US (continued)

• Swimmers within a group exposed to the same
  training program respond with varied and
  different physiological adaptations. It is
  erroneous to assume that a swimmer will change in
  a particular physiological way because of a
  coach's intentions and program content.
• Aerobic measures are unrelated to training and
  competitive swimming performances. However, some
  physiological tests performed during taper are
  moderately related to ensuing competitive
  performances . Physiological testing during
  training yields no predictive value for
  competitive performances and could yield
  irrelevant directions for training alterations.
• Alternative forms of training (e.g., tethered
  swimming, swimming with paddles) use different
  proportions of energy systems when compared to
  free-swimming. Because of specific training
  effects, non-specific activities will have no
  potential for transferring any form of
  conditioning to serious swimming performances,
  which normally is the justification for their
  use.

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WHAT RESEARCH TELLS US (continued)

• Strength or land training is a false avenue for
  swimmer improvement. There still is an emphasis
  on developing "strength" in swimmers, despite its
  irrelevance. Occasionally, a report of the value
  of strength training emerges.
• Significant gender differences exist in
  physiological factors associated with training.
  Mixed gender training groups will produce less
  than optimal training responses for both
  genders.
• The meaningfulness of physiological test
  results varies depending upon the performance
  standard of the swimmer. Such tests are
  irrelevant for guiding training program content.

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THE INDIVIDUALITY OF ADAPTIVE RESPONSES
TRAINING EFFECTS WITHIN SWIMMING GROUPS SUBJECTED
TO THE SAME HEART RATE RANGES AS TRAINING STIMULI
(Howat Robson, 1992)
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RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS

• Laboratory measurements, which are only
  partially related to laboratory performance, are
  useless for predicting competitive performances.
• Training programs based on oxygen and substrate
  supply theories are likely to result in incorrect
  stimulation and will not yield maximal fitness
  adaptation for a specific sport, such as
  swimming.
• Training with auxiliary activities, such as
  weight training, will not produce adaptations
  that transfer to competitive performances in
  experienced athletes.

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RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS (continued)

• Physiological responses to complicated sporting
  activities such as swimming are likely to be
  caused by a complicated set of physiological
  processes. Limiting training "theory" to one
  incomplete physiological model will not result in
  maximal fitness adaptation for a specific sport.
• It is likely that training programs developed
  by incorporating principles from psychology,
  biomechanics, and physiology will stimulate the
  best training adaptations for a particular sport.
  

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BIGGEST CHANGES REQUIREDFOR CONTINUALLY ADAPTED
SWIMMERS

• More than two peaks a year.
• Periodization out block periodization in.
• Training emphases should stress stroking economy
  and effectiveness and mental skills training.
• Individualization of program content.
• Removal of irrelevant and detrimental training
  and competition activities.
• Increase quantity of race-quality swimming.

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TOPIC 2 ALTITUDE
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WHAT IS KNOWN IN SWIMMING
Intermittent hypoxia (residing in an altitude
tent) does not improve swimming performance
economy or produce any beneficial effects.
Erythropoietin (EPO) changes due to altitude
and intermittent hypoxia are not associated with
total hemoglobin mass. Swimmers' sea level
performances are not associated with total
hemoglobin mass. Swimmers' ventilatory responses
are not improved by intermittent hypoxia although
sedentary individuals do exhibit improvements.
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ALTITUDE WHAT IS KNOWN IN SWIMMING (continued)
Altitude residence does not affect the
ventricular structure of swimmers. Simulated
altitude conditions reduce both swimming
performances and physiological factors. Altitude
residents improve swimming times when they
compete at sea level. Any attributed altitude
training effects are most likely caused by
placebo or training camp/vacation/reduced
workload effects.
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ALTITUDE
The implications of altitude research have
changed over the years, which is a common
phenomenon in science. Some nations still
persist with the folly of altitude training.
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TOPIC 3 LACTATE/LACTIC ACID
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ERROR 1IT IS LACTIC ACID

• CORRECTION
• IT IS ALWAYS LACTATE

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ERROR 2Increases in lactate measures are
indicative of muscles working without oxygen. The
higher the measure, the greater the "anaerobic
capability" of the athlete.

• CORRECTION
• It is a result of (a) processes which produce
  and contribute to its appearance, and (b)
  processes which catabolize it after its removal
  from the blood. ". . . the concentration of
  lactate in the blood provides minimal
  information" about its rate of production

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ERROR 3Sore muscles are caused by lactic acid
pooling and not being cleared.

• CORRECTION
• Excessive lactic acid is removed from the blood
  and muscles usually within one hour after
  exhaustive exercise. 15 minutes of recovery
  swimming usually clears any accumulation.
• Soreness comes from muscle cell
  damage.Metabolic acidosis is not caused by
  lactate production.

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ERROR 4Lactic acid causes fatigue.

• CORRECTION
• Lactate is actually an important fuel that is
  used by the muscles during prolonged exercise. It
  mitigates fatigue.

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ERROR 5Anaerobic threshold is a valuable
criterion for programming training activities.

• CORRECTION
• 1) Muscle never becomes anaerobic.
• 2) The so-called disproportionate increase
  causing a "turnpoint" is incorrect because the
  increase is actually smooth and incremental.
• 3) The concept of anaerobic threshold and its
  being caused by a few processes is unsupported.

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ERROR 6Anaerobic training is an important
aspect of swimming programs.

• CORRECTION
• Focusing training on changing physiological
  functions that have low to no relevance for
  competitive performances is baffling.
• 2) The capacity of females to do anaerobic
  training is less than in males.

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TOPIC 4 PACING
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Get out ahead and hold it"take it out to
lead at the end of the second lap"take it out
fast", etc. are commonplace advices. Among many
coaches, "taking it out" somehow is meant to give
a swimmer a racing advantage.
INITIATING A RACE
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1) To all intents and purposes the available
anaerobic and aerobic energy in a race is fixed
and limited.2) Using too much of one energy
resource, particularly anaerobic energy too soon
will cost a swimmer later in a race. 3) The
judicious allocation of these energy sources
should result in the best time possible on any
given day.
ENERGY RESOURCES
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1) Even pacing uses energy resources more
efficiently and results in better performances
than going out too fast or too slow in a 2
minute effort.2) Females must pace more
exquisitely than men. There is a gender
difference.3) A short faster start is usually
required until aerobic energy kinetics are fully
functional.4) The execution of swimming skills
(dive, turns, underwater kicking) affect lap
times and possibly stroke velocity.
PACING
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1) Pace by power output, not by effort.2)
Coach-imposed pacing does not work.3) Regard
for energy resources is paramount.4) The
even-pacing caveat.
PACING
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1) The duration and intensity of early increased
velocity. 2) The consistency and effectiveness
of the skills of turning, the dive, and finish
across all race segments. 3) The overall
stroking velocity in that part of the length
where it is the dominant performance
determinant. 4) The optimization of the
transition from high-velocity skills to
lower-velocity stroking in each length throughout
the duration of a race. A focus on these
factors would likely produce significant
competitive improvements.
FACTORS TO DETERMINE
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TOPIC 5 WHOLE-ARM PROPULSION
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A history of clinging to an incorrect attribution
of the Bernoulli Theory and lift in swimming.
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Fluid-flow distortions about a wing-shape surface
at an angle of attack.
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TOPIC 6 STRETCHING/FLEXIBILITY
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RANGE OF MOTIONThe terms stretching and
flexibility are often used interchangeably.
Flexibility implies the range of movement that is
accommodated by the physical structure.
Stretching refers to facilitating the achievement
of natural flexibility, that is, the lengthening
of soft tissues (i.e., muscles) to facilitate
attaining one's flexibility.
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Most swimming-related shoulder problems are
caused. Attempts to move beyond natural
flexibility, particularly in post-pubertal
swimmers, usually lead to injury and are not
related to performance improvements. Forms of
flexibility work have reached abusive levels.
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Abusive stretching of a professional
player'shamstrings and hip joints.
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HABITUATION

• Conscientious participation in physical
  activities from pre-pubertal ages leads to the
  development of sufficient flexibility to
  accommodate the many actions practiced in
  competitive swimming.
• There is no need for a concerted flexibility
  program, particularly since there is no evidence
  to show such programs facilitate performance
  improvement.

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RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS

• Only PNF stretching is acceptable as a formal
  stretching protocol.
• In particular, long static stretching activities
  and abusive stretching are harmful to the athlete
  and performance.
• Both harmful forms of stretching decrease
  performance strength, power, and explosiveness.
• Exaggerated stretching routines slow recovery.
• Stretching does not prevent injury, but rather in
  many circumstances contributes to it.

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DOS AND DONTS OF STRETCHING

• Do not perform any stretching activities that
  stress the joint tissues or structures.
• Do no exercises that bounce or force a joint
  beyond a natural range of movement.
• Only use a partner for stretching activities if
  the partner is knowledgeable about and adheres to
  the correct execution of 3S (PNF) stretching.
• Slow stretching should follow a physical warm-up
  but precede any skill and intensity specific
  activities. Coaches should be wary of
  individuals promoting forms of stretching other
  than PNF.

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• No stretched position should be held other than
  in the PNF procedure.
• Once specific race preparations begin after
  warm-up, no further formal and deliberate
  stretching should be performed. The stretching of
  soft tissues should be achieved through
  swimmer-directed activities that are performed to
  meet the particular needs of the moment.
• If any stretching produces pain or DOMS that
  keeps returning after each stretching session,
  cease stretching.

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CLOSURETHE 25-YEARS RULE

• Emphasizing conditioning and physiology are so
  entrenched in swimming and educational curricula
  that complete understanding and re-emphasis
  within 25 years is unlikely.
• The rejection of altitude/hypoxic training is
  likely to take less than 25 years because there
  appears to be a semblance of realization that
  expected benefits from this class of activity
  have not been forthcoming.

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THE 25-YEARS RULE (continued)

• Lactic acid will remain in the swimming coaches'
  lexicon until conscientious individuals change
  their understanding of the phenomena embraced by
  the term and transfer that realization to other
  coaches. Change should occur in less than 25
  years.
• Pacing will be paid lip-service. Unfortunately,
  because of the associated false premises of
  competing, many potential winners will be turned
  into losers over at least the next 25 years.

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THE 25-YEARS RULE (continued)

• The acceptance of whole-arm propulsion could take
  25 years.
• Excessive and detrimental stretching should
  persist for 25 years.

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THE FUTURE OF SWIMMING MYTHS AND SCIENCE
Brent S. Rushall, Ph.D., R.Psy. The full text of
this presentation is available for one week as a
.pdf download from http//coachsci.sdsu.edu/swimmi
ng/ASCA2009.pdf