Friendly software should listen and speak

1
????????-???????? ???????
Friendly software should listen and speak

• ???????? ??????? ??.3539
• ????? ?????? ??.3539

2
????

• ????????
• QA-??????? Start
• ?????????????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????????????
  ?????
• ?????????????? ????????? ??????
• ??????

3
????????
4
????????-???????? ??????? ???????????

• ????????-???????? ???????
• ?????????????? ???????
• ?????????
• ??????????
• ????????????????
• ?????????? ???????????-???????? ?????????

5
????????? ??????????

• ???? ????????
• ???????? ??????? ? ??????? ????????
• ????????? ?????????
• ????????????? ???????? ????????? ????? ??????????

6
??????? ? ??????? ?????????? QA-??????

• 1960-? ??. ?????? QA-???????
• ?????????????? ??? ???????????-???????? ????????
  ??? ?????????? ??????
• ??????????? QA-???????
• ?????????????????????? (closed-domain)
• ??????? ??????????
• ????????
• ??????????
• ?????????? ??????????
• ??????
• ?????????? ? ???????? ???????
• ??????????? ????????? ??? ?????????? ????????
• ????? (open-domain)
• ???????????????
• ???????? ????????? ??????? Start (1993 ?.)

7
??????????? QA-???????
8
????????

• ???? ????????
• ????????? ????????
• ??????????? ???????
• ????????? ?????? ??? QA-??????
• ????????? ???????
• ???????????? ??????
• ?????? ?? ??????? ? ???????? ???????
• ????????????? ???????
• ???????????????
• ???????? ??????????? (??????)
• ??????? ????????????? QA-??????

9
????????-???????? ??????? Start
10
QA-??????? Start.

• http//start.csail.mit.edu
• ??????? ? MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
  ? 1993 ???? ??? ???????????? Boris Katz
• ?????????????
• ?????????? ?????????? ????
• ????????? ??????
• ????????? ????????? (???? ??????)
• ???? ????????
• ????????? ??????? Start
• ?????????? ?????? ??????? NLP, ?????????????
  ?????????? ??? ??????? Start
• ???? ???????? ????????? ?? ???????????? ?????? ?
  ?????? ??????????

11
Start. ???? ????????

• ??????? ?? ????????????
• What is a fractal?
• ??????? ? ??????
• Who invented the telegraph?
• ??????? ?? ??????????
• What country is bigger, Russia or USA?
• ????????? ???????
• Show me some poems by Alexander Pushkin

12
Start. ??????? ????????

• ?????????
• Give me the states that border Colorado.
• What's the largest city in Florida?
• Show me a map of Denmark
• List some large cities in Argentina
• Which is deeper, the Baltic Sea or the North Sea?
• Show the capital of the 2nd largest country in
  Asia
• ?????????
• When was Beethoven born?
• Who composed the opera Semiramide?
• What movies has Dustin Hoffman been in?

13
Start. ??????? ????????

• ????? ? ?????????? ??????????
• What is Jupiter's atmosphere made of?
• Why is the sky blue?
• Convert 100 dollars into Euros
• How is the weather in Boston today?
• How far is Neptune from the sun?
• Show me a metro map of Moscow.
• ??????? ? ????????
• What countries speak Spanish?
• Who was the fifth president of the United States?
• What languages are spoken in the most populous
  country in Africa?
• How many people live on Earth?

14
Start. ???? ??????
doc1
doc2
Parser
Generator
???? ??????
text
doc3
doc4
15
Start. ???? ??????

• ??????? ?? 3-? ??????
• ????????? ????????? (T-?????????)
• ??????????????/????????????? ??????? ??????
  (S-???????)
• ??????? ???? (????????)

16
Start. ????????? ?????????

• T-????????? ??? ????????? ????
• lt?????? ????????? ???????gt
• ? ???????? ???????/???????? ?????? T-?????????
  ????? ????????? ?????? T-?????????
• ??????????????, ?????????????? ???????????,
  ???????? ? ?????? ????? ??????????? ????????????
  ??? ???????? ?????????????? T-?????????
• ????????? ???????? ??????????? (???????, ???????
  ????????, ???????, ??????????????? ???????, ?????
  ?????????? ? ?.?.) ???????? ? ???????????
  ????????? History, ????????? ? T-??????????.

17
Start. ?????? T-?????????
Bill surprised Hillary with his answer
Parser
ltltBill surprise Hillarygt with answergt ltanswer
related-to Billgt
18
Start. ????????? ???????? ? ??????? T-?????????
Whom did Bill surprise with his answer?
?????????? ????????
Bill surprised whom with his answer?
Parser
ltltBill surprise whomgt with answergt ltanswer
related-to Billgt
???? ??????
Whom Hillary
ltltBill surprise Hillarygt with answergt ltanswer
related-to Billgt
?????????
Bill surprised Hillary with his answer
19
Start. ????????? ???????? ? ??????? T-?????????
Did Bill surprise with his answer?
?????????? ????????
Bill surprised Hillary with his answer?
Parser
ltltBill surprise Hillarygt with answergt ltanswer
related-to Billgt
???? ??????
Yes!
?????????
Yes, Bill surprised Hillary with his answer
20
?-????????? vs. ???????? ?????

• The bird ate the young snake
• The snake ate the young bird
• The meaning of life
• A meaningful life
• The bank of the river
• The bank near the river

21
?-????????? vs. ???????? ?????

• ???????? ?????
• ???????????? ?????????? ? ????????? ?????? ?????
  ???????
• ?????? ???????????? ?? ?? ?????????????
  ?????????, ? ?? ?????????????? ???????????????
  ???????? ????
• T-?????????
• ???????? ??????? ???? ? ??????????? ? ?????????
  ????? ????? ????
• ????????????? ???? T-????????? ?????????? ???
  ??????????? ????????? ?? ???????????? ??????
• ?????????? ??? ??????????????

22
What do frogs eat?

• ?????, ?????????? ?? T-?????????? ????? 6
  ???????, ?? ??????? 3 ??????????
• Adult frogs eat mainly insects and other small
  animals, including earthworms, minnows, and
  spiders
• One group of South American frogs feeds mainly on
  other frogs
• Frogs eat many other animals, including spiders,
  flies, and worms

23
What do frogs eat?

• ?????, ?????????? ?? ???????? ??????, ????? 33
  ??????????, ? ??????? ????? ??????????? ?????? ??
  ?????? What eats frog? ? ?????? ?????????? ????
  eat ? frog
• Bowfins eat mainly other fish, frogs, and
  crayfish
• Cranes eat a variety of foods, including frogs,
  fishes, birds, and various small mammals.

24
Start. S-???????
????????

Bill surprised Hillary with his answer
Bills answer surprised Hillary
Parser
Parser
ltanswer surprise Hillarygt ltanswer related-to Billgt
ltltBill surprise Hillarygt with answergt ltanswer
related-to Billgt

???????
25
Start. S-???????

• S-??????? ????????? ??????????????? ????????
• ???????????
• ????????
• ???????????????
• ???????????? ?????
• ??????????????
• ????????
• ????????/????????? ?????
• ?????????????? ??????????????
• ????? ???????????? ??? ???????? ??????????
  ??????????

26
Start. S-???????. ???????
27
Start. S-???????

• ????????? S-??????? ????? ?????????????? ? 2-?
  ????????????
• ? ??????
• ??? ?????????? ???? ?????? ?????? T-???????????
• ? ????????
• ??? ????????? ??????? ????????????

28
Start. ????????

• ????????? S-??????? ????????? ? ??????? ????
• ? ????????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ?????,
  ?????? ??? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????, ?
  ??????? ??? ?????????

29
WordNet

• ????????????? ???????? ??????????? ?????
• ??????? ?? ???????? (???????)
• ??????
• ????????? ???????????? ????
• ???????? ????????
• ???? ????? ????????? ???????? (????????)
• 150 000 ????, 115 000 ????????, 207 000 ???
  ????? ??????

30
WordNet. ????????????? ????????? ????? ?????????

• ???????????????
• ?????????? Y ????????? X, ???? X
  ????????????? Y
• ???????? Y ??????? X, ???? Y ????????????? X
• ?????? ?? ????? X ? Y ????? ?? ?????, ???? ? ???
  ????? ?????????
• ???????? Y ??????? X, ???? X ????? Y
• ???????? Y ??????? X, ???? Y ????? X

31
WordNet. ????????????? ????????? ????? ?????????

• ???????
• ????????? ????????? ??????
• ??????? ??????? ????????
• ????? ?????????? ???????
• ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????

32
Start. WordNet

• WordNet ???????????? ? ??????? Start ??? ??????
  ?????????? ? T-???????????
• ????? ? ???? ???? T-????????? ltbird can flygt
• Canary ??????? Bird
• ?? ?????? Can canary fly? Start ??????? Yes

33
Start. Omnibase

• ????????????? ????
• ???????????? ??? ?????????? ???????? ? ??????
• ?????? ??????-????????-????????
• ?????? Federico Fellini is a director of La
  Strada
• ?????? La Strada
• ???????? director
• ???????? Federico Fellini
• ??????? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ?????? (data
  source)
• Star Wars imdb-movie

34
Start. Omnibase. ???????
35
Start. Omnibase. ?????? ???????
Who directed gone with the wind?
Start
?????? ???????
Who directed X?, X Gone with the wind
Gone with the wind
Omnibase
????????? ???????
??????? ????????
imdb-movie
(get imdb-movie Gone with the Wind Director)
???????
?????????? ???????
imdb-movie
Victor Fleming
????????? ??????
Victor Fleming directed Gone with the wind
36
Start. Omnibase

• ????????????
• ?????? ?????? ???????? ? ????
• ?????????????? ????????????? ??????
  ??????-????????-????????
• ??????????
• ????????????? ????????? ??????? ??? ???????
  ????????? ??????

37
Start. ?????? ??????? ?????????? ??????

• Wikipedia
• The World Factbook 2006
• Google
• Yahoo
• The Internet Movie Database
• Internet Public Library
• The Poetry Archives
• Biography.com
• Merriam-Webster Dictionary
• WorldBook
• Infoplease.com
• Metropla.net
• Weather.com

38
????????????? ???????

• ????? ????????? ???????? ???? ????????
• ???????? ????????? ??????? ??????????,
  ??????????? ? ????
• ??? ?????????? ? ???? ?????? ??????????? ?? ????
  ??????
• ????????????
• ????????????
• ??? ???????? ????????????? ???????? ???????
  ???????????? ?????? RDF (Resource Description
  Framework), ?????????? ??
• ?????? XML
• ???????? ?????? ????????? ???????

39
Start. Natural Language Annotations

• ???????????? ? ??????? ??????????????? ?????
  ?????????? ????????? ?? ???????????? ?????
• ?????????? ????? ???????-???????? ? ????????????
  ????????? ??????????
• ? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ?
  ?????????????? ???????? ?? ?????????
• ??????????? ??????????? ??????? ? ??????????
  ????????????? ????
• ??????
• ???????????
• ???????????
• ???? ??????
• ?????????
• ????????? ????? ???? ???????????????

40
Start. Natural Language Annotations

• ????????? ?????????
• ?????????? ????????? ? RDF ???????? ??????????
• ????????????? ????????????????? ????????? (????
  ??????? ? ??????????)
• ????????????? ???? ?????? ???????

41
Start. ?????????? ?????????

• How many people live in Kiribati?
• What is the population of the Bahamas?
• Tell me Guams population.

42
Start. ?????????? ?????????

• ltrdfsClass ID"Country"gt
• ltrdfscommentgtA Country in the CIA
  Factbooklt/rdfscommentgt
• lt/rdfsClassgt
• ltrdfProperty ID"population"gt
• ltrdfsdomain rdfresource"Country"/gt
• ltrdfsrange rdfresource"xsdstring"/gt
• ltnlann text"Many people live in ?s"/gt
• ltnlann text"population of ?s"/gt
• ltnlgen text"The population of ?s is ?o"/gt
• lt/rdfPropertygt

43
Start. ????????????????? ?????????

• What is the country in Africa with the largest
  area?
• Tell me what Asian country has the highest
  population density.
• What country in Europe has the lowest infant
  mortality rate?
• What is the most populated South American
  country?

44
Start. ????????????????? ?????????

• ltnlInformationAccessSchemagt
• ltnlanngtwhat country in region has the largest
  attributelt/nlanngt
• ltnlpatterngt?x a Countrylt/nlpatterngt
• ltnlpatterngt?x map(attribute) ?vallt/nlpatterngt
• ltnlpatterngt?x location regionlt/nlpatterngt
• ltnlactiongtdisplay(boundto(?x,
  max(?val)))lt/nlactiongt
• ltnlmappinggt
• ltnlhash variable"attribute"gt
• ltnlmap value"population"gtpopulationlt/nlmap
  gt
• ltnlmap value"area"gtarealt/nlmapgt
• ...
• lt/nlhashgt
• lt/nlmappinggt
• lt/nlInformationAccessSchemagt

45
Start. ????????????????? ?????????

• Is Canadas coastline longer than Russias
  coastline?
• Which country has the larger population, Germany
  or Japan?
• Is Nigerias population bigger than that of South
  Africa?

46
Start. ????????????????? ?????????

• ltnlInformationAccessSchemagt
• ltnlanngtcountry-1s att is larger than
  country-2s attlt/nlanngt
• ltnlpatterngt?x a Countrylt/nlpatterngt
• ltnlpatterngt?x map(att) ?val-1lt/nlpatterngt
• ltnlpatterngt?y a Countrylt/nlpatterngt
• ltnlpatterngt?y map(att) ?val-2lt/nlpatterngt
• ltnlactiongtdisplay(gt(?val-1, ?val-2)))lt/nlactio
  ngt
• ltnlmappinggt
• ltnlhash variable"att"gt
• ltnlmap value"population"gtpopulationlt/nlmap
  gt
• ltnlmap value"area"gtarealt/nlmapgt
• ...
• lt/nlhashgt
• lt/nlmappinggt
• lt/nlInformationAccessSchemagt

47
Start. ????? ?????? ??????

• What is the distance from Japan to South Korea?
• How far is the United States from Russia?
• Whats the distance between Germany and England?
• ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??????
• ????? ??????? ????? ??????
• ????? ??????? ?????? ??????
• ????????? ?????????? ????? ????

48
Start. ????? ?????? ??????

• ltnlInformationPlanningSchemagt
• ltnlanngtdistance between country1 and
  country2lt/anngt
• ltnlplangt
• ltrdfSeqgt
• ltrdfligtwhat is the capital of country1
  ?capital1lt/rdfligt
• ltrdfligtwhat is the capital of country1
  ?capital2lt/rdfligt
• ltrdfligtwhat is the distance between
  ?capital1 and ?capital2
• ?distancelt/rdfligt
• lt/rdfSeqgt
• lt/nlplangt
• ltnlactiongtdisplay(?distance)lt/nlactiongt
• lt/nlInformationPlanningSchemagt

49
Start. Natural Language Annotations

• ????????????
• ???????? ?????????? ?? ?????????????,
  ???????????? ?????
• ???? ????????????????? ????????? ?????
  ???????????? ????? ????????
• ????????????? ???????? ??????????? ?????????
• ??????? ? Omnibase ????? ??????????? ? ???????
  ?????????
• ??????????
• ????????? ?????????

50
Start. ????? ??????
?????????? ????????
?????? ??????
Parser
??????
???? ??????
T-?????????
WordNet

?????????2
?????
?????????1
?????? ? Omnibase
Omnibase
??????
WWW
doc3
doc2
docN
??????
doc1
passageM
passage1
passage2
?????
????????? ???????
51
Start. ??????? ??????????

• ????????? ????????? ???????? ? ?? ??????????????
  ????????????
• ??????????? ??? ? ????? ????????? ????????????
  ??????????
• ????????????? ??????? ????????????? ?????? ?
  ??????????
• ????????? ?????????
• ?????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????????
  ?????????? ????????

52
?????????????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????????????
?????
53
??????

• The dog ate.

54
????????

• Salespeople sold the dog biscuits.

55
??????????? ????? ????
56
??????? ?????? ????? ????

• t ??? (det, noun, )
• w ????? ? ?????? (can, will)
• p(t w) ??????????? ????, ??? ??? t
  ????????????? ????? w
• p(w t) ??????????? ????, ??? ????? w
  ????????????? ???? t
• p(t1 t2) ??????????? ????, ??? t1 ???? ?????
  t2

57
?????????????

• ????? 90
• ??????????? 97
• ??????? 98

58
??????? ?????? ???????
adj large 0.004 small 0.005
0.218
0.45
0.0016
det a 0.245 the 0.586
noun house 0.001 stock 0.001
0.475
59
?????? ?????? (transformational tagging)

• ????????? ????? ????????.
• ???? ????? ??????
• ???????? ? ????? ??? X ?? ??? Y, ???? ???
  ??????????? ????? Z.
• ????????? ??? ??????? ???????-?? ???.
• ???????? ???????
• ?????????? HMM vs. ?????????? TT
• (?????????? ????????? ????)

60
Treebank

• ?????? ?? ?????? ??????????? ???????, ?????????
  ????????????? ??????????????? ?????????.
• ??????
• (s (np (det The) (noun stranger))
• (vp (verb ate)
• (np (det the) (noun doughnut)
• (pp (prep with) (np (det a) (noun
  fork)))))

61
??????????? Statistical Parser

• ????????
• ???? ??????? ??????? ?? Pen treebank
• ?????????? ? ????
• ?????????? ?????? ??? ??????????
• ?????????? ???????????? ????????
• ?????????? ???????? ??????????

62
PCFG (Probabilistic context-free grammars)

• sp ? np vp (1.0)
• vp ? verb np (0.8)
• vp ? verb np np (0.2)
• np ? det noun (0.5)
• np ? noun (0.3)
• np ? det noun noun (0.15)
• np ? np np (0.05)

63
??????? ??????????? ???????????? ??????

• s ????????? ???????????
• ?????????? ???? ??????
• ? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ??????
• r(c) ??????????? ?????????? r ??? ?

64
?????????? ??????????? PCFG. ??????? ???????.

• ????? ??????? Pen treebank
• ????????? ?? ???? ??? ???????
• ?????? ?? ??????? ??????
• ????????? ?????? ????? ???????
• P(???????) ?????????? ??? ?????????, ????????
  ?? ????? ??????????

65
Two state-of-the-art statistical parsers. Markov
grammars

• ?????? ???????? ????????????? ????? ?????? ??????
• ???? ?????? ???????? ??????, ???????
  ??????????? ????, ???, ???????? np prep
• p(t1 f, t2) ??????????? ????????? ???? t2
  ????? ???? t1 ?????? ????? f.

66
Lexicalized parsing

• ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????? (head),
  ??????????????? ??.
• p(r h) ??????????? ????, ??? ????? ?????????
  ??????? r ??? ???? ? ???????? h.
• p(h m, t) ??????????? ????, ??? ????? h
  ???????? ???????? ??????? ? head m ? ????? ???
  t.

67
Lexicalized parsing

• ??????
• (S (NP The (ADJP most troublesome) report)
• (VP may
• (VP be
• (NP (NP the August merchandise trade
  deficit)
• (ADJP due (ADVP out) (NP tomorrow)))))
• p(h m, t) p(be may, vp)
• p(r h) p(posvp ? aux np be)

68
Lexicalized parsing

• the August merchandise trade deficit
• rule np ? det propernoun noun noun noun

69
?????????????? ????????? ?????? (Causal
Reconstruction)
70
??????

• ???? ?? ?????????? ?????? ???????????? ???????
  ??????, ?????? ?? ???????????? ? ??????? ????? ?
  ???????????? ??????? ??????.

71
??????

• ?????. ???? ?? ?????????? ?????? ????????????
  ??????? ??????, ?????? ?? ???????????? ? ???????
  ????? ? ???????????? ??????? ??????.
• ?????????? ?? ??? ??????? ????? ?????
• ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ???????
• ?????? ?? ?????????? ????? 2?

72
?????? CR (Causal Reconstruction)

• ???? ????? ???????? ???????? ?? ????????????,
  ????????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?? ??????????????
  ???????.

73
???????????? ?????????(Transition space)

• ????????????? ????????, ??? ??????? ?????????
• The perception of causality
• ???????????? ?????????
• ??????
• ?????? ???????????? ?? ????????? ????????

74
????????? ????????????? (Causal modeling)

• ??????????????? ????

75
?????? ????????, ????????? ??????? ?????? ??? CR

• ??????????
• ????????
• ?????????
• ?????

76
???????? ????????? ??????
77
???????? ????????? ??????

• ??????????
• ??????????? ?? ????? ????????
• ????????
• ???????????????
• ????????????
• ?????????
• ???????? ?????????? ????????? ?? ?????????
  ????????
• ?????
• ????? ?? ????? ????????? ???????

78
?????????. 3 ???? ???????????

• ??????????
• ???????? ??????????? ????? ????? ?????????
• ???????????

79
?????????????? ????

• ?????????? ????? ??????????? ?????? ? ???????????
• ??????????? ???????
• ?????????????? ???????
• ??????? ??????
• ??????? ?????????????

80
2 ?????? ????????? ????????? ??????

• ???????
• ???????

81
3 ???? ?????????? ????????.??????? ???????

• ??????? ????????? ? ?????????? ????????? ???????
  ? ???????? ???????
• ??? ?????????? ? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????
  ?????????? ?????? Windows?

82
3 ???? ?????????? ????????.??????? ???????

• ????????? ??????? ????? ?????
• ??? ????????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ??
  ????????? ?????? ???????????????? ?????? ? ?????
  ????????????
• ????????? ????????? ????? ?????????, ?????????? ?
  ???????, ? ??? ????????? ???????
• ??? ????????? ????????? ????? ???????? ??
  ???????????

83
???????????? ?????????

• ????????????? ???? ????????? ? ??????? ??????? ?
  ????????
• ?????????? ??????? ??? ??????????????????
  breakpoint??
• ???????????? ??????????
• ?????????? ?????????

84
????????? ?????? ????????? (States vs. Changes)

• ??????
• Changes ???????????? ? ????

85
??????

• The contact between the steam and the metal plate
  appears.
• The concentration of the solution increases.
• The appearance of the film changes.
• The pin becomes a part of the structure.
• The water remains inside the tank.

86
??????

• The contact between the steam and the metal plate
  appears.
• The concentration of the solution increases.
• The appearance of the film changes.
• The pin becomes a part of the structure.
• The water remains inside the tank.

87
????????????? ??????????????

• NOT-APPEAR
• NOT-DISAPPEAR

• APPEAR
• DISAPPEAR

88
????????????? ??? NOT-DISAPPEAR

• ???????????? ????????

?????????????? ????????
DECREASE
NOT-DECREASE
89
??????????? ???????

• ???????? ?????????
• ???????
• ???????-?????????
• ????? ???????

90
??????

• APPEAR(contact, ltthe-steam, the-metal-plategt, t1,
  t2)
• INCREASE(concentration, the-solution, t3, t4)
• CHANGE(appearance, the-film, t5, t6)
• APPEAR(a-part-of, ltthe-pin, the-structuregt, t7,
  t8)
• NOT-DISAPPEAR(inside, ltthe-water, the-tankgt,
• t9, t10)

91
??????????. ?????? ?????

• ltinput sentencegt
• ltattribute-expressiongt ltverb-groupgt
• ltattribute-expressiongt
• the ltattributegt ltprepositiongt ltnoun-phrasegt
• ltprepositiongt and ltnoun-phrasegt
• ltverb-groupgt CHANGE APPEAR ? ?.?.
• The concentration of the solution increases.

92
??????????. ?????? ?????

• ltinput sentencegt
• ltobjectgt ltverb-groupgt ltpredicate-modifiergt
• ltpredicate-modifiergt
• ltattributegt ltprepositiongt ltnoun-phrasegt
• ltprepositiongt and ltnoun-phrasegt
• ltverb-groupgt becomes becomes not
  remains remains not
• The water becomes a vapor.

93
??????

• CLEF. http//clef-qa.itc.it/
• WordNet. http//wordnet.princeton.edu/
• Pen treebank. http//www.cis.upenn.edu/treebank/
• Start. http//start.csail.mit.edu/
• TREC. http//trec.nist.gov/
• Eugene Charniak 1997, Statistical Techniques
  for Natural Language Parsing
• Gary C. Borchardt 1993, Causal Reconstruction

94
??????

• Boris Katz, Beth Levin 1988 Exploiting Lexical
  Regularities in Designing Natural Language
  Systems
• Boris Katz and Jimmy Lin. Annotating the Semantic
  Web Using Natural Language. September, 2002.
• Boris Katz, Sue Felshin, Deniz Yuret, Ali
  Ibrahim, Jimmy Lin, Gregory Marton, Alton Jerome
  McFarland and Baris Temelkuran. Omnibase Uniform
  Access to Heterogeneous Data for Question
  Answering. June, 2002.
• SEMLP. http//semlp.com/
• RCO. http//www.rco.ru/