Physiology1

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Physiology

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  should only be used for educational purposes
  (Fair Use Policy)

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Notes

• Homeostasis body maintains a steady state
  (internal environment)
• Temperature
• Water, salt, glucose level
• Oxygen
• Carbon Dioxide
• Etc.
• Is important because the chemical reactions in
  the body can only occur within a narrow range of
  these levels (ex. Normal temp is 98.6 F)

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Notes

• Negative feedback mechanism (system) method by
  which the body maintains homeostasis. It works
  like a thermostat on an air conditioner or
  heater.

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Levels of Organization

• Cell -gt Tissue -gt Organ -gt System

Muscle cell
Smooth muscle tissue
Stomach
Digestive system
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Human Body Tissues
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Organ Systems
Nervous System
Integumentary System
Skeletal System
Muscular System
Circulatory System
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Body Worlds
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Body Worlds
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Body Worlds
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Major Organ Systems
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Circulatory System
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Notes

• Circulatory system transports gas, nutrients
  and wastes to and from the bodys cells.
• Heart muscular organ that pumps blood

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Heart
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Notes

• Blood made of 4 components
• Red blood cells contains hemoglobin (contains
  iron) to carry oxygen has no nucleus
• White blood cells defends body against foreign
  invaders has a nucleus
• Platelets helps clot blood
• Plasma the fluid part of blood carbon dioxide,
  nutrients, and wastes carried here

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Blood
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Clotting
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Blood Types
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Notes

• Blood vessels the pipes that carry blood.
  There are 3 types
• Arteries carry blood away from heart to body
• Veins carry blood from body to heart valves to
  prevent backflow
• Capillaries small vessels where gas, nutrient,
  and waste exchange take place with cells

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Capillaries
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Capillaries and Blood Vessels
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Blood Vessel
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Heart
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Notes

• Pulmonary circulation blood travels from heart
  to lungs (and vice versa) to pick up oxygen and
  release carbon dioxide at lungs
• Systemic circulation blood travels from heart
  to body (and vice versa) to deliver oxygen and
  nutrients and to pick up wastes and carbon
  dioxide at bodys cells.
• Lungs
• Heart
• Body

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Respiratory System
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Why Do We Breathe?
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Cellular Respiration
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Notes

• Respiratory system group of organs working
  together to bring about the exchange of oxygen
  and carbon dioxide with the environment
• inhalation breathing in
• exhalation breathing out
• lungs major organs for breathing

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Breathing
Air exhaled
Air inhaled
Rib cage lowers
Rib cage rises
Diaphragm
Diaphragm
Inhalation
Exhalation
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Notes

• Alveolus (alveoli) located in the lungs tiny
  air sacs surrounded by capillaries where gas
  exchange takes place (diffusion)

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Notes

• Gas Exchange
• Oxygen from air diffuses into the blood-filled
  capillaries (surrounding the alveoli)
• Carbon dioxide (in the blood-filled capillary)
  diffuses into the alveoli

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Diffusion
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O2 and CO2 in Blood
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Smokers Lung
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Lung Cancer
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Excretory System
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Notes

• Excretory system eliminates nonsolid wastes from
  the body.
• Nonsolid wastes (urea, carbon dioxide, salt) are
  eliminated through lungs, skin, and kidneys.
• Lungs exhale carbon dioxide and water vapor.
• Sweat glands in skin release excess water and
  salts.

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Notes

• Kidneys filter and clean the blood to produce
  urine.
• Urea toxic metabolic chemical that the body
  produces
• Produced when protein is broken down

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Kidney
Kidney
Nephron
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Notes

• Nephrons the filtering units in the kidneys.
• clean the blood
• produce urine.
• In the filtration process water, salts, amino
  acids, glucose, urea, and other small molecules
  diffuse out of the blood

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Kidney Stones
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Dialysis can be used to filter and clean the
blood.
Artery
Vein
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Notes

• Digestive system system of organs that break
  down food and absorb nutrients, and get rid of
  solid wastes

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Notes

• Mechanical digestion muscle contractions
  physically squeezes food into smaller pieces
• Chemical digestion enzymes break down
  macromolecules (carbohydrates, protein, lipids)
  into smaller molecules

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Enzymes in Digestion
Site Mouth Stomach Small intestine(from
pancreas) Small intestine
Enzyme
Role in Digestion
Salivary amylase Pepsin Amylase Trypsin Lipase
Maltase, sucrase, lactase Peptidase
Breaks down starches into disaccharides Breaks
down proteins into large peptides Continues the
breakdown of starch Continues the breakdown of
protein Breaks down fat Breaks down remaining
disaccharides into monosaccharides Breaks down
dipeptides into amino acids.
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Notes

• Digestion begins in the mouth and continues in
  the stomach.
• Mechanical and chemical digestion break down
  food.
• Peristalsis moves food through the organs.

muscles contract
stomach
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Notes

• Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth.
• Digestion of proteins occurs in the stomach.
• Digestion of fats and sugars occur in thesmall
  intestine.

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Notes

• Digestion is completed in part of the small
  intestine.
• Most digestion takes place in the duodenum.
• The pancreas, liver, and gallbladder aid in
  digestion.
• pancreas helps digest fat and protein
• bile from the liver/gallbladder helps digest fats

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Effects of Alcohol

• Normal Liver
• Cirrhosis of the Liver

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Effects of Alcohol

• Normal liver cells

• Alcohol damaged liver cells

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Effects of Alcohol

• Normal liver

• Fatty liver

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Notes

• Most absorption of nutrients occurs in the small
  intestine.
• Villi in the small intestine help absorb
  nutrients.
• Increases surface area for absorption
• Slows food
• Contain blood-filled capillaries
• Blood transports nutrients to all body cells

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Villi
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Notes

• Large intestine
• where most water is absorbed
• Bacteria break down food even further, producing
  flatulence (gas) and vitamin K

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Nervous System
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Story of Phineas Gage
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Notes

• Nervous system receives and relays information
  about activities within the body and responds to
  stimuli (what your senses detect)
• Composed of 2 parts
• Central Nervous System (CNS) Brain and spinal
  cord
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) all other
  nerves not part of CNS

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Brain and Spinal Cord
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Inside the Spinal Cord
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Notes

• Neuron a nerve cell. The basic unit of the
  nervous system.
• Dendrites receive signals
• Axon transmits signals

Direction of Signal
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Notes

• Signal transmission Impulses (electrical
  signals) travel from the dendrites through the
  axon to the synapse (gap). The axon terminals
  release neurotransmitters (chemical messengers)
  across the synapse, touching the dendrites of the
  next neuron, causing the impulse to start again
• Signal is both electrical and chemical

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Notes

• There are 3 kinds of neurons
• Sensory signals go from sense organs to
  interneuron
• Motor signals go from interneuron to muscles
  glands
• Interneurons connect motor sensory neurons
  reside in brain spinal cord

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Causes of Paralysis

• Damage to nerve
• Botulism toxin
• Tetanus toxin
• Nerve Gas

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Notes

• Voluntary response brain is involved in
  response (for example, walking)
• Reflex arc brain is not involved in response
  (for example, pulling back after touching a hot
  stove). It must be involuntary.

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Reflex Arc
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Notes

• Endocrine system system of glands that secrete
  (release) hormones to regulate the body (maintain
  homeostasis)

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Glands and Hormones
Pineal gland The pineal gland releases melatonin,
which is involved in rhythmic activities, such as
daily sleep-wake cycles.
Hypothalamus The hypothalamus makes hormones that
control the pituitary gland. In addition, it
makes hormones that are stored in the pituitary
gland.
Thyroid The thyroid produces thyroxine, which
regulates metabolism.
Pituitary gland The pituitary gland produces
hormones that regulate many of the other
endocrine glands.
Pancreas The pancreas produces insulin and
glucagon, which regulate the level of glucose in
the blood.
Parathyroid glands These four glands release
parathyroid hormone, which regulate the level of
calcium in the blood.
Ovary The ovaries produce estrogen and
progesterone. Estrogen is required for the
development of secondary sex characteristics and
for the development of eggs. Progesterone
prepares the uterus for a fertilized egg.
Thymus During childhood, the thymus releases
thymosin, which stimulates Tcell development.
Testis The testes produce testosterone, which is
responsible for sperm production and the
development of male secondary sex characteristics
Adrenal glands The adrenal glands release
epinephrine and nonepinephrine, which help the
body deal with stress.
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Cushings Syndrome
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Goiter/Hyperthyroidism
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Cretinism/Hypothyroidism
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Gigantism/Dwarfism
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Worlds Tallest and Shortest Men
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Local Gigantism
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Notes

• Glands organs that release hormones
• Hormones chemical messengers that start or stop
  certain processes in the body

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Hormones
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Hormones affect other glands to release other
hormones
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Negative Feedback
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Sex Hormones
Based on Mader, S., Inquiry Into Life,
McGraw-Hill
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Diabetes Mellitus
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Notes
Beta cells release insulin into the blood
Body cells absorb glucose
Blood glucose level decreases
Blood glucose level increases
Liver converts glycogen to glucose
Homeostasis Normal blood glucose level
Blood glucose level decreases
Blood glucose level increases
Alpha cells release glucagon into blood
Liver converts glycogen to glucose
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Notes

• Pancreas a gland that regulates blood glucose
  (sugar) level by releasing
• Insulin released when glucose level high causes
  cells to absorb glucose
• Glucagon released when glucose level low causes
  liver to release glucose
• Endocrine system is slower than nervous system,
  but the effect lasts longer

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Notes

• Immune system defends body against pathogens
  (disease-causing agents)

Lymphatic/Immune Systems
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Notes

• Immune system has 2 types of defenses
• Non-specific defenses first line of defense
  against disease. Guards against all infections.
• Skin barrier against pathogens
• Lysozyme enzyme in tears, mucus, and sweat that
  kills bacteria
• Stomach acid kills anything that is eaten
• Mucus traps dirt and pathogens
• Cilia tiny hairs that line the throat which
  catch and sweep away foreign materials
• Fever high body temperatures prevent pathogens
  from breeding quickly
• Cough and sneeze removes foreign material
  caught in nose and throat

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Notes

• Inflammatory Response when white blood cells
  enter tissue to kill pathogens around a wound,
  causing swelling, redness, pain, and itching

Wound
Skin
Phagocytes move into the area and engulf the
bacteria and cell debris
Bacteria enter the wound
Capillary
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Notes

• Specific defenses
• Cell-mediated immune response white blood cells
  attack a specific pathogen.

Helper T cell activates killer T cells and B
cells
Macrophage
T cell binds to activated macrophage
Helper T Cell
Killer T Cell
T Cell
T cell, activated by macrophage, becomes a helper
T cell
Antigens are displayed on surface of macrophage
Infected Cell
Killer T cells bind to infected cells, disrupting
their cell membranes and destroying them
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Notes

• Types of white blood cells
• Phagocytes engulf and destroy pathogens.
• T cells destroy infected cells.
• B cells produce antibodies.

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Notes

• Specific defenses begin with detecting antigens.
• Antigens are surface proteins that identify
  different pathogens.

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Notes

• B cells produce proteins called antibodies which
  bind to the antigens on the pathogens

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Notes

• Memory B cells remember the identity of
  pathogens
• When this happens, body becomes immune
• to that
• specific
• pathogen

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Notes

• Infection when a pathogen invades a body
• Pathogens foreign invaders such as
• Viruses
• Bacteria
• Parasites
• Fungi

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Diseases
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More Diseases
Agent That Causes Disease
Method of Transmission
Pathogen Types
Disease
Common cold
Viruses
Influenza
Chickenpox
Measles
Bacteria
Tuberculosis
Meningitis
Cholera
Tetanus
Protists
African sleeping sickness
Malaria
Amoebic dysentery
Worms
Schistosomiasis
Beef tapeworm
Fungi
Athletes foot
Ringworm
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Size Comparison
1 nanometer (nm) one billionth of a meter
100 nm
eukaryotics cells10,000-100,000 nm
viroids5-150 nm
viruses50-200 nm
prokaryotics cells200-10,000 nm
prion2-10 nm
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Viruses

• Viruses
• non-living
• infect many organisms
• reproduce only by invading cells

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Viruses

• Examples are
• Common cold
• HIV

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Viruses infect host cells
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Some viruses can invade into cell
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Virus Structure

• Made of DNA or RNA (genetic material) and a
  protein coat.

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Smallpox
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Tree Man
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Notes

• Vaccines control viruses
• given to prevent illness
• contain the antigen of a weakened pathogen
• prepare the immune system for a future attack.

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Notes

• Vaccination provides immunity.
• causes memory cells to be produced
• allows immune system to respond quickly to
  infection

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Notes

• Bacteria
• Are prokaryotic
• Have cell wall, cell membrane, ribosomes, genetic
  material
• Doesnt have a nucleus or other organelles

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Bacteria on a Pin
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Notes

• Cause disease by invading tissues or making
  toxins
• Bubonic plague
• E. coli

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Gangrene
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Bubonic Plague (Black Death)
From Discover, November 2001
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E. coli Outbreaks
From Time, Aug. 3, 1998
Cabbage Patch
Dirty Toys
Bad Cheese
Swimming Pool
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Lyme Disease
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Lyme Disease Rash
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How to Remove a Tick

• How to Stay Lyme Free
• Clear nail polish
• Dont leave head in

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Antibiotics
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Notes

• Antibiotics are used to fight bacteria
• may stop bacterial cell wall formation.
• do not work on viruses.

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Fungi
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Notes

• Fungi (fungus)
• Mushrooms
• Molds
• Can cause infections
• Athletes foot
• Toe fungus

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Notes

• Parasites organisms that live off of the host
• Protozoa eukaryotic unicellular organisms
• Worms

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Protozoa
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Naegleria fowleri
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Trichinosis
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Tapeworm
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Tapeworm Cyst on Liver
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Parasites from Intestine
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Elephantiasis (lymphatic filariasis)
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Leech
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Malaria/Plasmodium
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Notes

• Autoimmune diseases white blood cells attack the
  bodys healthy cells.
• White blood cells cannot recognize healthy cells.
• Tissues fail because of attack.

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Autoimmune Diseases
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Notes

• Allergy overreaction of immune system to
  allergens such as
• Food (peanuts)
• Airborne (pollen, dust)
• Chemical (nickel, medicine, bee stings)
• Allergic reactions (coughing, sneezing, runny
  nose, swelling) are dangerous and can kill

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Notes

• Cancer when body cells grow and divide
  uncontrollably

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Cell Life Expectancy
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Normal Cell Growth
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Cancer
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How Cancer Spreads
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Skin Cancer
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Leukemia
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Notes

• HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
• attacks and weakens the immune system
• is transmitted by mixing infected fluid with
  other bodily fluid

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HIV
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Notes

• HIV reproduces in and destroys T cells.
• causes AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
  where body is susceptible to common illnesses

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Number of Helper T Cells Following HIV Infection