PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN LDCS

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PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN LDCS T. R. Lakshmanan (Part
A) - Urban and Transportation Development
and Overview - The Socioeconomic Context of
Developing Countries - Urban Transportation
Demands in Globalizing Developing Countries -
Conditions of Urban Transport in LDCs -
Evolution Experience of Urban Transport in
North America Europe - Implications for
LDCs (Part B) - Overview of Principles and
Guidelines of Urban Transit Planning and
Management in Brief
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Global and Regional Trends
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Urban Population in Industrial Developing
Regions, Selected Years
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Current Megatrends Affecting Transit A.
Economic Restructuring in the West ?
Concentration Dispersal B. Rapid
Urbanization in Developing Countries Explosion
of Motorization C. Changing Nature of
Travel D. Problems of an Auto-dependent World
? Congestion ? Pollution
? Global Climate Change ?
Traffic Accidents ? Social Costs
E. Implications for Transit in the North
and South
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Survey of Urban Transport in LDCs
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Road Supply as a Percentage of Urbanized Areas
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Vehicle Ownership and Household Income, India,
1988
MTWmotorized two-wheeler
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Vehicle Ownership and Household Income, Two
African Cities, 1992
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Global Car Ownership, 1993
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Global Vehicle Ownership, Selected Countries
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Modal Split of Daily Trips, Selected Cities
in Developing Countries
City Modal Split ( of daily
trips) NMT Public Private
Other (motorized) Bobo
Dioulasso, Burkina Faso 87 3 10 0 Alger, Algeria,
1990 67 18 15 0 Jaipur, India 66 21 12 1 Bamako,
Mali, 1984 63 12 26 0 Beijing, China,
1992 62 33 5 0 Havana, Cuba, 1998 57 27 6 11 Yao
undé, Cameroon, 1982 55 22 23 0 Hanoi, Vietnam,
1995 54 4 42 0 Ouagadougou, Burkina
Faso 52 3 45 0 Dakar, Senegal,
1987 50 32 17 0 Douala Cameroon,
1982 36 37 27 0 Cairo, Egypt, 1998 36 47 17 0 Sã
o Paulo, Brazil, 1997 35 33 31 1 Abidjan, Côte
d'Ïvoire, 1988 30 58 12 0 Bouake, Côte
d'Ïvoire 27 62 11 0 Santiago, Chile,
1991 20 56 16 9 Caracas, Venezuela,
1991 16 50 34 1 Pretoria, S. Africa,
1996 11 57 30 2 Buenos Aires, Argentina,
1992 9 60 24 7
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Modal Split of Daily Motorized Trips (),
Selected Cities in Developing Countries
(a) survey date not mentioned in the reference
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Daily Motorized Trips by Public Private
Transport, Selected Cities in Developing
Countries
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Trip Purpose, Selected Cities
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Door to Door Travel Times, all Modes, São Paulo,
1997
(1) illegal paratransit (2) individual
use only source CMSP, 1998
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Car and Bus Travel Times
(a) door-to-door travel times, average for all
trips
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General Costs to Own and Use Vehicles in Asian
Cities (US 1992 values)
Source World Bank, 1995
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Absolute and Relative Transport Expenses by
Income Level, São Paulo, 1997
(1) all modes considering that 50 of users
receive travel vouchers from employers (2)
automobiles
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Transport Expenses and Family Income, Accra
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Traffic Fatalities and Rates, Selected Countries
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Pedestrian Fatalities as a Percentage of Total
Traffic Fatalities, Several Regions
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Large Cities in Developing Countries Exceeding
WHO Pollution Levels
(a) Figures show concentration surpassing limits
by a factor of up to 2 (lt2) or by more than 2
(gt2). 90-100 per cent from transport sources, 2)
80-100 per cent from transport sources, 3) 60-70
per cent from transport sources Source World
Bank, 1996, and UN, 1996
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Average SPM Concentration, Cities in a Developing
Developed Countries
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Transit History Evolution
The Horse Car Era (1840-90) The
Electric Street Car (1890 1920)
Interurban Suburban Railroads (1900-1930)
Expressways Beltways (1950 )
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Post World War II Transit The Interstate
Program Home Mortgage Subsidy Program
The G. I. Bill The Parking Policies
Increasing Female Labor Force Participation
The Decline of Transit Public Support of
Transit
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Five major tends in transit ridership are evident
since 1900. A period of initial growth between
1890-1920, followed by a period of fluctuation
between 1920-1939 during which an initial growth
in ridership gave way to a decline during the
Great Depression years. This loss in ridership
was offset by dramatic growth during the war
years 1940-1945. Ridership declined dramatically
from 1946-1972 with the rapid suburbanization of
metropolitan areas and a public reference for the
automobile. The years from 1972 to the present
have seen a modest increase in ridership as a
result of growing awareness and support for
alternatives to the automobile.
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Share of Transit Trips in Large Metropolitan
Areas, All Modes (a), and Rail Modes only (b),
1993.
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Car Ownership Rate in Selected Countries, 1970-92
(number of cars per thousand persons)
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Summery of Operating Cost Breakdowns by Country
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Urban Transport Crisis in Europe/N. America
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Transportation Indicators in Selected Cities, by
Regional Average, 1990
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Recent Evolution of Urban Transport in LDCs
1. Post World War II and Post Colonial History
- Increasing Urbanization and City Sizes -
Variably Increasing Real per Capita Incomes -
Institutional and Policy Characteristics of
Public Transport - Behavioral and Cultural
Factors 2. Public Transport Buses in
LDCs 2 million vehicles (urban) 1 million
vehicles (non urban) carry 6.5 trillion
(6.5x1012) passengers km. per year Paratransit
over 2 million paratransit vehicles in cities
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Public Transport continued
A. Formal and Informal Bus and Other Services
- Decline of Large Bus Operations ? municipal
and large by systems ? fare control,
investment declines, poorer service ?
corruption and political control ? failures
Lagos State Transportation Corporation
Pakistan Road Transport Corporation Central
Transport Board - Para Trasit Services B. Urban
Transit Options - Technology - Operational
Form - Amenity Levels - Management Form -
Costs
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Bus Services Characteristics and Costs Private
and Public Bus Services Operating in the Same
City (1985 data)
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Characteristics of Third World Busways
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Characteristics of Selected Light Rail Transit
Systems
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Conventional Tramways Major Systems
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Suburban Railways Major Systems
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Metro Financial Performance (US million per
year)
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Maximum Passenger Flow
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A Comparison of Transit Modes
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Regional MRT Strategy
Key ? applicable (?)sometimes applicable ?
acceptability questionable
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Performance of Public and Private Bus Operators
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Public and Private Bus Operators
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Indian State Transport Undertakings Cost
Structure
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Basic Busway Data in Latin America
1 data in link with highest frequency 2
Trolleybus padron68, articulated 10 Diesel
padron 88, articulated 23 3 additional lane
at bus stops
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Basic Busway Data in Curitiba, Brazil
Commercial speed including an average of 5
minutes dwell time at terminals. The actual
operating speed is 21-22km/hr.
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Basic Busway Data in Quito, Ecuador

• Maximum volume per day was 214,857 on 44/33/99
• Articulated buses, for 174 passengers (124
  standing)
• The Trole operates with 3 routes or circuits.

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Basic Busway Data in Bogota, Colombia

• Peak hour factor of 9.82
• Highest load n both directions
• Average speed at peak hour
• Buses per our per direction
• CConventional. These buses in Bogota can carry
  between 80 - 120 passengers Bsmall buses, up
  to 32 passengers Mminibus up to 15 passengers,
  no standees
• Buses in mixed traffic
• A few bus stops are defined by enforcement is
  null. For practical purposes, buses stop
  anywhere.
• Gross estimate from available data.
• Two lanes per direction are for buses in mixed
  traffic. Additional there are another 2 lanes per
  direction for cars and trucks.
• The busway has 2 lanes per direction for the
  exclusive use of buses. Additionally, there are
  another 2 lanes for cars, trucks other
  off-service buses.

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After World War II, there was an enormous spread
of suburban growth. The sequence of growth was
one of radial expansion along urban expressways,
followed by a filling-in of the areas between
them. Freeways and beltways fostered the
development of suburban centers that competed
with the central business district as places of
employment and locations for commercial,
financial, and professional services.
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During the mid-1800s, urban growth spread along
the radial routes of the early streetcars.
Residential growth spread northward along Lake
Michigan and to the northwest. The lines of
urban expansion set the initial structure for the
development of metropolitan Chicago.
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The introduction of the electric streetcar
reinforced the radial pattern of growth for the
city. By 1900, the radial patterns were less
pronounced as a result of residential growth in
the interstitial areas.
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SUCCESSFUL CASE STUDIES IN PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION
Adaptive Cities Industrialized Countries -
Portland, Oregon - San Diego,
California Developing Countries Curitiba,
Brazil Mexico City Adaptive Transit (Tailoring
Transit to Serve Cities Suburbs) - Technology
- based Solutions (Karlsruhe, Germany) -
Service Innovations (Adelaide, Australia) -
Small Vehicle Private Services
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Portland, A Transit Metropolis
Favorable Factors - Metropolis Governance
- Farsighted Comprehensive Plan - Prosperous
Growing CBD - Urban Growth Boundaries -
Parking Policies - Proactive Station Planning
Process MAX (Metropolitan Area Extension) -
Density Considerations - Public Policy Market
Needs
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Evolution of Curitibas Integrated Transit
Network 1974-1982.
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Curitiba Cobweb Service Structure
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Land Uses and Densities along Trinary Roads. A
cross sectional perspective
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Residential Densities in Curitibas Structural
Axes and Adjoining Neighborhoods, 1992
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Daily Motorized Trips in Greater Mexico City 1994
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Mexico Citys Hierarchy of Paratransit Services,
1994
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Mexico Citys Metro Network, 1997
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Issues and Guiding Principles in Urban Transit
Planning
Three underlying objectives 1. Plan to serve
requirement of a metro region involved in
globalization processes vital to economic
sustainability 2. Plan Framework must aim at
equitable access to all including poor (to
overcome public policy regimes typically
favoring private motor transport). 3. Plan
must promote environmental quality and safety.
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General Principles and Guidelines

• Mode Complementarity Principle
• Innovations in Public Transport Mode
• Economic and Financial Sustainability
• Land Development and Land Use Guidance
• Improving Personal Safety
• Environmental Sustainability
• Design of a Governance Structure (Institutional
  Capacity)

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Mode Complementarity Principle

• Different Transit Modes Vary in
• cost
• speed
• seating capacity
• flexibility
• other performance characteristics
• broad regimes where mode has advantages
• over others

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Mode Complementarity Principle continued
View an urban passenger trip as an intermodal
trip coordinating modes seamlessly from point A
to point B A functional combination of heavy,
medium and light modes This will reduce the
fragmentation of metro population into different
locations with different incomes and access
potentials
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Innovations in Public Transport Modes
A core mode of a multi tier metro hierarchical
network of transit Modes which (a) provides
accessibility services to entire metro Region and
(b) is crucial in restraining the use of a
private car.
Choices
1. Underground transport or elevated system
US 100 million/km 2. Busway Systems with
a network of feeder buses, special loading
platforms, business centers US 1-3
million/km (up to 25,000 passengers/hr/direction.
Curitiba, Bogota, São Paulo)
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Economic and Financial Sustainability
Key Issues
Bus or Paratransit (charette) Productivity Cost
Recovery and Fare System Financing
Incentives Externality Changes (congestion,
pollution, etc.) Demand Management
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Bus Productivity a Function of
? Passenger - km traversed/day ? Salary
Levels ? Employees/bus ? 5 in private Brazilian
buses, 11.5 in Mumbai (India) 28 in
Accra (Ghana) ? Fare setting Income Levels ?
Pricing ? Externality