Traditional Actors and Other Actors

1
Traditional Actors and Other Actors

• Lsns 7, 8, and 9

2
Agenda

• Classical International System (1648-1789)
• Transitional International System (1789-1945)
• Post- World War II International System
  (1946-1991)
• Post- Cold War International System (1992-present)

3
Classical International System (1648-1789)

• Zealous efforts of the Catholic Church to stamp
  out Protestantism led to bitter religious wars in
  the late 16th and early 17th Centuries
• The growing tensions erupted in the Thirty Years
  War (1618-1648) which eventually involved every
  major European power and expanded from a
  religious to a political character

Ferdinand II, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire
4
Classical International System (1648-1789)

• The war was the most destructive European
  conflict prior to the 20th Century
• Undisciplined soldiers committed acts of violence
  and brutality
• Economic and social life was disrupted
• One-third of the German population was killed
• In an effort to avoid tearing their societies
  apart, the European powers ended the war with the
  Peace of Westphalia in 1648

5
Classical International System (1648-1789)

• The Peace of Westphalia
• Laid the foundations for a system of independent,
  competing states
• European states would henceforth regard each
  other as sovereign and equal
• Each state had the right to organize its own
  domestic and religious affairs
• Political and diplomatic affairs would be
  conducted by states acting in their own interests

6
Classical International System (1648-1789)

• Sovereignty does not necessarily mean that the
  state is able to control all the actions of its
  members at all times
• It does mean the state internally can claim a
  monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force
  as a possible tool in seeking to compel obedience
  and externally can claim a monopoly right to act
  vis-à-vis other states

Max Weber famously defined the state as that
organization that claims a monopoly over the
legitimate use of violence
7
Classical International System (1648-1789)

• With the Peace of Westphalia, nation-states
  emerged as the worlds primary political
  organizations
• Nation-states have a single central government
  exercising sovereignty over a relatively fixed
  population within a relatively defined territory
• A nation refers to a a cultural or social
  entity whose members have some sense of a shared
  historical experience as well as shared destiny
• State and nation-state have come to be used
  interchangeably

The former state of Yugoslavia has divided into
several new states that reflect the national
identities of their members
8
Classical International System (1648-1789)

• During the classical era of international
  relations there were a relatively small number of
  actors involved in international politics
• Royal families of the European nation-states
  along with their aristocratic elites

King Louis XIV is credited with saying, L'État,
c'est moi (I am the State).
9
Classical International System (1648-1789)

• While other nation-states existed, international
  politics was essentially European politics
• Power distributed among England, France, Austria,
  Sweden, Spain, Turkey, and later Prussia and
  Russia
• Aggressively minded states were deterred from
  seeking hegemony by the balance of power
  represented by the prospect of coming up against
  a coalition of states having equal or superior
  power
• France was often perceived as the major threat to
  the systems stability with England serving as
  the chief balancer

10
Classical International System (1648-1789)

• The first half of the 17th Century ushered in the
  age of absolutism in which ultimate authority
  rested in the hands of a monarch who claimed to
  rule by divine right and was therefore
  responsible only to God
• The fact that decision-making rested in the hands
  of a few rulers who did not have any vast
  ideological cleavages (all were conservative and
  many were related by marriage) helped maintain
  stability
• A minimum number of minimally different
  nation-states

11
Classical International System (1648-1789)

• The combination of multiple power systems and
  flexibility of alignments made for a multipolar
  environment
• The classical era was not an era of peace, but
  one in which the violent international conflicts
  that did occur were relatively small affairs
  between monarchs rather than the total wars
  between societies that would follow in subsequent
  eras

12
Case Study

• Seven Years War

13
Seven Years War Causes

• After the explorations of the 15th, 16th, and
  17th Centuries, the European powers protected
  their interests by building a series of fortified
  trading posts throughout the maritime regions
• Boundaries in the new colonies were disputed
• Commercial competition ultimately generated
  violence
• In 1746 French forces seized the English trading
  post at Madras, India
• In the Caribbean English pirates attacked Spanish
  vessels and French and English forces fought over
  the sugar islands
• The violence culminated in the Seven Years War
  (1756-1763)

14
Seven Years War Causes

• A global war
• In Europe, Britain and Prussia fought against
  France, Austria, and Russia
• In India, British and French allied with local
  rulers and fought each other
• In the Caribbean, the Spanish and French fought
  the British
• In North America, the Seven Years War merged
  with the on-going French and Indian War
  (1754-1763) which pitted the British and French
  against each other

15
Seven Years War Frederick the Great

• Became king of Prussia in 1740 when he was 28
• Had spent much of his life training as a soldier,
  visiting battlefields, and studying political
  history and politics
• Believed every man had an obligation to serve his
  state and that it was the kings particular duty
  to develop policies that increased the power and
  standing of the state
• Strong lust for military glory
• His success lay in his purposeful use of
  authority and unwavering determination to make
  Prussia a European power

16
Seven Years War Frederick the Great

• Frederick used the period of peace after the War
  of Austrian Succession to prepare his country and
  army for another war
• In August 1756, Frederick launched a preemptive
  attack against Saxony and Austria, hoping to
  force them to sue for peace before another
  country could intervene
• Was unable to achieve a quick, decisive victory
  and was now faced with fighting a coalition of
  powerful states
• French, Russian, and Austria forces began
  converging on Prussia

17
Seven Years War Frederick the Great

• Frederick used his central position to defeat
  French, German, and Austrian armies in his
  Nov-Dec 1757 Rossbach-Leuthen campaign, secure
  Prussias boundaries of 1756, and gain a
  satisfactory negotiated peace
• In the process, he benefited greatly from
  Britains ability to support Prussia by defeating
  the French at sea and overseas

18
Seven Years War British Navy

• The British had the most powerful fleet and
  expeditionary forces of any of the combatants
• Furthermore, the British could rely on the
  Prussian army to do most of the fighting on the
  continent
• This allowed the British to bring overwhelming
  pressure against the French at sea

19
Seven Years War British Navy

• The British Navy blockaded the French ports to
  contain commerce raiders, intercept forces bound
  for the colonies, and forestall an invasion of
  England
• They raided the French Atlantic coast to destroy
  shipping and stores and to divert French forces
  from Germany
• They defeated the French Navy at Quiberon Bay
  which freed the British Navy to turn its
  attention to the French colonies

The Battle of Quiberon Bay by Nicholas Pocock
20
Seven Years War French and Indian War

• The British, French, and Spanish all had colonial
  interests in North America and this competition
  led to war in 1754
• The French and Indian War merged with the Seven
  Years War

21
Seven Years War French and Indian War

• The French came to place greater emphasis on the
  war in Europe than in the colonies and the
  British developed a numerical advantage
• The British Navy played an important role in
  blockading New France which was never a
  self-sufficient colony and could not survive
  without a steady stream of support from France
• In September 1760, the British finally conquered
  all of Canada when the combined Anglo-American
  force overwhelmed the French at Montreal

22
Seven Years War Results

• The victory in Canada allowed the British to
  divert thousands of troops elsewhere and
  ultimately win the Seven Years War
• Britain was now in a position to dominate world
  trade for the foreseeable future
• The Seven Years War paved the way for the
  establishment of the British Empire of the 19th
  Century

23
Seven Years War

• How does the Seven Years War represent the era
  of the classical international system in terms
  of
• States acting according to self-interest
• European dominance
• Absolute authority
• Limited war
• Balance of power
• Multipolar

24
Transitional International System (1789-1945)

• The American and French Revolutions ushered in a
  period of nationalism that gave the masses a
  greater voice in the political life of their
  country
• Mass democracy meant that the government had to
  be more sensitive to public opinion in
  formulating foreign policy, but also that the
  government could count on the total military and
  economic capabilities of their societies in
  pursuing that policy

During the French Revolution, the levee en masse
was used to mobilize the French population and
resources
25
Transitional International System (1789-1945)

• Nationalism led to the appearance of new states
• Freedom gained from colonial masters
• Political unification of culturally similar
  groups
• At the same time, nationalistic impulses touched
  off a new wave of European imperialism that
  subjugated people in Africa and elsewhere

Simon Bolivar was one of the chief heroes in
Latin Americas struggle for independence from
Spain
26
Transitional International System (1789-1945)

• Imperialism was effected not just through the
  force of arms, but also through trade,
  investment, and business activities that enabled
  the imperial powers to profit from subject
  societies and influence their affairs without
  going to the trouble of exercising direct
  political control
• Conflict could be avoided only as long as there
  was enough colonial territory to go around

Colonial disputes in Africa was one of the causes
of World War I
27
Transitional International System (1789-1945)

• After World War I there were additional pressures
  for national self-determination and by the end
  of the transitional period there were over 50
  nation-states
• In addition to increased nation-states, there
  were increasing numbers of people during this
  period
• In 1830 the world population reached 1 billion
• Just 100 years later it reached 2 billion

28
Transitional International System (1789-1945)

• The increased industrialization that occurred in
  Europe and America during the 19th and early 20th
  Centuries contributed to a growing disparity in
  wealth between societies in the Northern and
  Southern Hemispheres
• The transitional era marked increasing
  interdependence, especially in the economic
  sphere
• The Global Depression of the 1920s and 1930s
  showed the dangers of this interdependence

By the end of the 19th Century, the factory had
become the predominant site of industrial
production in Europe and America
29
Transitional International System (1789-1945)

• The Industrial Revolution largely bypassed the
  Southern Hemisphere, creating an unprecedented
  rich-poor gap
• The Industrial Revolution skewed not just the
  distribution of wealth in favor of certain
  states, but also the distribution of power
• Economic advantage was easily converted to
  military advantage
• Several states dominated the rest of the system,
  but Britain was considered first among equals

30
Transitional International System (1789-1945)

• Two non-European states rose to power during this
  transitional era
• The United States with its victory in the
  Spanish-American War (1898)
• Japan with its victory in the Russo-Japanese War
  (1905)
• The transitional era marked both the peak of the
  European-centered world and the beginning of its
  decline

Retreat of Russian soldiers during the
Russo-Japanese War
31
Transitional International System (1789-1945)

• On Oct 24-25, 1917, the Bolsheviks stormed the
  Winter Palace, seized control of Russia, and
  transitioned the country to a socialist
  government
• After that Russia took on special significance in
  the international system as a communist power

Vladimir Lenin headed the Bolsheviks, the radical
wing of the Russian Social Democratic Party
32
Transitional International System (1789-1945)

• Additional components of growing ideological
  conflict emerged during the transitional era with
  the rise of national socialism and fascism
• The transitional era marked the first time
  competition between rival political philosophies
  would be injected into international relations
  and would foreshadow the extreme polarization of
  the post-World War II era

In May 1939, Mussolini and Hitler signed a
ten-year Pact of Steel between Italy and Germany
33
Transitional International System (1789-1945)

• Still the international system of the
  transitional era was flexible enough to remain
  multipolar in that countries reached across
  ideological philosophies to form alliances
• The British and American democracies joined
  forces with the communist Soviets against the
  fascist Germans and Italians in World War II

Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin
34
Transitional International System (1789-1945)

• The transitional era was marked by increases in
  total war
• Total war describes a war in which nations use
  all of their resources to destroy another
  nations ability to engage in war.
• French Revolutions levee en masse
• US Civil War and Shermans March to the Sea
• World War I and the increased lethality that
  resulted from diverting advances in
  industrialization to military applications
• World War II and the atomic bomb

35
Transitional International System (1789-1945)

• Traditional nation-states have difficulties
  handling problems of a global magnitude
• Nonstate actors began to appear
• The first intergovernmental international
  organization, The Central Committee for the
  Navigation of the Rhine, was created in 1815
• The International Committee of the Red Cross was
  founded in 1863
• The League of Nations was formed in 1919

1919 British cartoon criticizing the failure of
the United States to join the League of Nations
36
Transitional International System (1789-1945)

• Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs)
• Established on a regional or global basis by
  member governments in response to problems that
  transcend national boundaries and seem to call
  for institutional responses
• Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
• Formed among private groups of individuals
  sharing specialized interests across national
  borders

37
Case Study

• Global Depression

38
Global Depression

• In the 1920s, the world economy was beginning to
  return to normal after World War I
• Beneath the surface however there were some
  serious flaws
• Tangled financial system
• Second order effects of technological advances
• Weakened agricultural base

39
Tangled Financial System

• The Treaty of Versailles imposed heavy reparation
  payments on Germany and Austria to France and
  Britain
• Germany and Austria relied on US loans and
  investment capital to finance these reparations
• The French and British, in turn, relied on these
  reparations to repay loans to the US taken out
  during World War I
• By the summer of 1928, US lenders and investors
  started to withdraw capital from Europe which
  placed an intolerable strain on the system

40
Second Order Effects of Technological Advances

• Improvements in industrial processes reduced
  demand for some raw resources, causing an
  increase in supplies and a drop in demand
• Tires could now be made with reclaimed rubber
  which crippled the economies of the Dutch East
  Indies, Ceylon, and Malaysia which relied on
  exports of rubber
• Increased use of oil reduced demand for coal
• Synthetics reduced demand for cotton
• Artificial nitrogen reduced demand for nitrates
  from Chile

41
Weakened Agricultural Base

• Agricultural production in Europe declined
  significantly during World War I, so farmers in
  the US, Canada, Argentina, and Australia
  increased their production
• After World War I, European farmers restored
  their production which created worldwide
  surpluses
• The situation was exacerbated by above average
  global harvests between 1925 and 1929
• By 1929 the price of a bushel of wheat was its
  lowest in 400 years

42
Crash of 1929

• The US had enjoyed an economic boom after World
  War I
• Many people began buying stock on margin (paying
  as little as 3 of the stocks price in cash and
  borrowing the remainder)
• By October 1929, indications of a worldwide
  economic slowdown and overvalued stock prices
  prompted investors to pull out of the market

43
(No Transcript)
44
Black Thursday (October 24)

• Panic selling on the New York Stock Exchange
  caused stock prices to plummet
• Thousands lost their lifesavings
• By the end of the day, eleven financiers had
  committed suicide
• When lenders called in their loans, investors
  were forced to sell their securities at any price

45
Economic Contraction Spreads

• There was no longer consumer demand for all the
  goods businesses produced
• Businesses cut back on production and laid off
  workers
• A vicious downward spiral of business failures
  and unemployment followed
• By 1932, industrial production was half of its
  1929 level
• National income was down approximately 50
• 44 of US banks had closed

46
Global Effects

• Much of the world depended on the export of US
  capital and the strength of US imports, so the US
  economic contraction had worldwide impact
• Germany and Japan were especially hard hit

Toronto Stock Market after the day after the New
York Stock Market crashes
47
Economic Nationalism

• The Great Depression destroyed international
  economic cooperation and governments began
  practicing economic nationalism
• Trade barriers, import quotas, import
  prohibitions
• US passed the Smoot-Hawley Tariff in 1930 raising
  duties on most manufactured products to
  prohibitive levels
• Governments of other nations retaliated with
  their own tariffs on US products

Congressman Willis Hawley
48
Economic Nationalism

• The world economy was too interdependent for
  protectionism to work
• Between 1929 and 1932, world production went down
  38 and trade dropped over 66
• By 1933, unemployment in industrialized nations
  was five times higher than in 1929

Unemployed men vying for jobs at the American
Legion Employment Bureau in Los Angeles during
the Great Depression.
49
Global Depression

• How does the Global Depression represent the era
  of the transitional international system in terms
  of
• Impact of industrialization
• Increased interdependence
• Shifting away from European dominance
• Growth of nonstate actors

50
Post- World War II International System
(1946-1991)

• Following World War II, the international system
  became bipolar as the United States and the
  Soviet Union matched competing ideologies in the
  Cold War
• The Cold War was a state of political tension and
  military rivalry that stopped short of full-scale
  war, but involved everything from the Olympics to
  the space race to indirect fighting through
  surrogates

51
Post- World War II International System
(1946-1991)

• The US and the USSR led two collective security
  organizations, NATO and the Warsaw Pact, that
  reflected the bipolar world
• Because a direct superpower confrontation was
  potentially catastrophic, the superpowers fought
  through surrogates in places like Korea, Vietnam,
  and Afghanistan

52
Post- World War II International System
(1946-1991)

• Still there were several tense moments of
  brinkmanship where the US and the USSR came close
  to confrontation such as the construction of the
  Berlin Wall and the Cuban Missile Crisis

1962 British cartoon showing Kennedy and
Khrushchev arm wrestling on top of nuclear weapons
53
Post- World War II International System
(1946-1991)

• After the US-USSR arms race reached the point of
  Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD), the superpowers
  resigned themselves to maintain a peaceful
  coexistence
• A gradual loosening of bloc unity ensued with
  France exercising increased independence in the
  West and Romania and China in the East

French President Charles de Gaulle declared,
France has no permanent friends, only permanent
interests.
54
Post- World War II International System
(1946-1991)

• One organization that offered an alternative to
  the post-World War II global reconstruction
  independent of the Cold War was the United
  Nations
• Charter finalized by delegates from 50 nations in
  1945
• Dedicated to maintaining international peace and
  security and promoting friendly relations among
  the worlds nations
• Still the ideological differences of the Cold War
  dominated the post-World War II international
  system and largely marginalized UN effectiveness

55
Post- World War II International System
(1946-1991)

• Because of widespread aversion to foreign rule,
  the two superpowers sought to gain influence over
  Third World nations rather than physically occupy
  them
• Third World countries were the newly
  independent nation-states, usually in the
  Southern Hemisphere, that were often
  underdeveloped or just developing

56
Post- World War II International System
(1946-1991)

• After World War II, many colonial powers granted
  independence to their former colonies
• The decolonization process doubled the number of
  nation-states from roughly 60 in 1945 to over 130
  in 1973

57
Post- World War II International System
(1946-1991)

• In 1945 almost a quarter of the worlds people
  and its land were under colonial rule
• By 1973 less than 1 of the worlds population
  and territory still lacked self-governments
• However many of the newly independent states
  lacked the experience and institutions necessary
  to smoothly transition to self-government and in
  many cases civil war, corruption, and
  dictatorships followed independence

58
Post- World War II International System
(1946-1991)

• During the1980s, Cold War tensions increased as
  Ronald Reagan pursued a vigorous anti-Soviet
  policy
• While the US was spending at levels the USSR was
  finding difficult to match, the Soviets were
  having their own problems with their economy and
  the war in Afghanistan
• Soviet premier Mikhail Gorbachev tried to correct
  the situation with a series of reforms, but by
  the summer of 1990 the reforms had spent
  themselves

Reagan delivering his Mr. Gorbachev, Tear Down
This Wall! speech in 1987
59
Post- World War II International System
(1946-1991)

• Revolutions broke out throughout eastern Europe
  as people overthrow communist dictators in places
  like Poland, Bulgaria, and Romania and countries
  such as Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia broke apart
• The Berlin Wall came down on November 9, 1989 and
  East and West Germany united in 1990

The 1989 Romanian Revolution was a violent
overthrow of the communist regime of Nicolae
Ceausescu
60
Post- World War II International System
(1946-1991)

• In August 1991, Soviet republics began declaring
  their independence from the USSR
• By the end of 1991, the USSR had ceased to exist
• The demise of the Soviet Union left the US as the
  worlds sole superpower

Division of the former USSR into 15 independent
states
61
Post- World War II International System
(1946-1991)

• On Aug 2, 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait
• The United Nations adopted resolutions condemning
  Iraq and authorizing the use of force
• Thirty-six countries (as well as Kuwait)
  contributed forces
• The end of the Cold War and Russias willingness
  to join the US in opposing Iraq created an
  unprecedented level of international cooperation
  and hopes for a more favorable new world order

62
Case Study

• The Truman Doctrine and the Greek Civil War

63
George Kennan and Containment

• Kennan was a Soviet expert and director of the
  State Departments Policy Planning Staff
• In the July 1947 issue of Foreign Affairs he
  wrote an article under the pen name Mr. X
  titled The Sources of Soviet Conduct.
• He described the USSR as being driven by an
  aggressive and uncompromising ideology that would
  stop only when it meets some unanswerable force.

64
George Kennan and Containment

• Kennan wrote that the US must adopt a policy of
  firm containment designed to confront the
  Russians with unalterable counterforce at every
  point where they show signs of encroaching upon
  the interests of a peaceful and stable world.

65
Greek Civil War

• During the German occupation of Greece during
  WWII, the Communists and other parts of the Greek
  Left formed a resistance army called the National
  People's Liberation Army (ELAS)
• By 1944, ELAS controlled large areas of the
  country and continued to have success against the
  British liberation force after the war.

66
Truman Doctrine

• On Feb 21, 1947, the British informed the US that
  they were pulling out of Greece.
• On March 3, the Greek government requested US
  aid.
• On March 12, President Truman announced the
  Truman Doctrine
• I believe that it must be the policy of the
  United States to support free peoples who are
  resisting attempted subjugation by armed
  minorities or by outside pressures.

Harry Truman
67
JUSMAPG

• On 22 May, Truman signed a bill authorizing 400
  million in aid to Greece and Turkey.
• By 1952, Greek forces would receive 500 million
  in US aid.
• Even more important was LTG James Van Fleet and
  his 350-man Joint US Military Advisory and
  Planning Group.

Grumman Avengers and Curtis Helldivers aboard the
USS Leyte preparing for operations over Greece in
1948
68
Success

• Van Fleet set out to retrain and reorganize the
  Greek Army and cut off the flow of supplies
  reaching guerrillas from Yugoslavia, Albania, and
  Bulgaria
• On Oct 16, 1949, Greeces Communist leaders
  announced a cease-fire

As in Greece, the enemy strikes from sanctuary
69
UN Special Committee on the Balkans

• In addition to the US effort, Greek Civil War
  involved the United Nations Special Committee on
  the Balkans (UNSCOB)
• First attempt by the UN to deploy an observation
  mission in the midst of an armed conflict
• In Aug 1946 the USSR vetoed a proposal to
  establish an investigative commission to look
  into the violence along the Greek-Albania border
• In December, Greece brought the complaint before
  the Security Council and the US repeated the
  earlier proposal
• This time the USSR acquiesced to the commission
  but proceeded to repeatedly veto resolutions
  based on its findings of Albanian, Yugoslav, and
  Bulgarian support to the Greek guerrillas

70
UN Special Committee on the Balkans

• The US was able to move the matter from the
  Security Council to the General Assembly to avoid
  a Soviet veto and on October 21, 1947, the UN
  created the eleven member Special Committee on
  the Balkans (UNSCOB)
• Two of the nations appointed to UNSCOB, Poland
  and the USSR, refused to participate
• UNSCOB functioned until December 7, 1951, when it
  was dissolved by the General Assembly and
  replaced on January 23, 1952 by a Balkan
  Sub-Commission of the standing Peace Observation
  Commission
• In each of its annual reports, UNSCOB had found
  continuing aid to the guerilla forces in Greece

71
UN Special Committee on the Balkans

• The UNSCOB was the first UN mission created
  directly as a result of Cold War competition
• It was plagued by a lack of cooperation from the
  communist governments who refused to allow it to
  operate in their territories
• While UNSCOB had no great impact on the Greek
  Civil War, it did teach the UN valuable lessons
  about the importance of obtaining consent from
  all local parties before deploying on a
  peacekeeping mission and the necessity of
  political impartiality once deployed

72
The Truman Doctrine and the Greek Civil War

• How does the Truman Doctrine and the Greek Civil
  War represent the Post- World War II
  international system in terms of
• Competing ideologies
• The bipolar world
• Superpowers militarily confronting each other
  through surrogates
• The role of the UN

73
Post- Cold War International System
(1992-present)

• The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of
  the Cold War abruptly opened up possibilities for
  trans-global connections that had previously been
  limited
• Globalization is the increasing
  interconnectedness of all parts of the world in
  all areas, most notably communication, commerce,
  culture, and politics
• It is welcomed by some and vilified by others

74
Post- Cold War International System
(1992-present)

• We stand today at a unique and extraordinary
  moment. The crisis in the Persian Gulf, as grave
  as it is, also offers a rare opportunity to move
  toward an historic period of cooperation. Out of
  these troubled times, . a new world order can
  emerge a new era -- freer from the threat of
  terror, stronger in the pursuit of justice, and
  more secure in the quest for peace. An era in
  which the nations of the world, East and West,
  North and South, can prosper and live in
  harmony.

75
Post- Cold War International System
(1992-present)

• .A hundred generations have searched for this
  elusive path to peace, while a thousand wars
  raged across the span of human endeavor. Today
  that new world is struggling to be born, a world
  quite different from the one weve known. A world
  where the rule of law supplants the rule of the
  jungle. A world in which nations recognize the
  shared responsibility for freedom and justice. A
  world where the strong respect the rights of the
  weak.
• President George H. W. Bush Sept 11, 1990

76
Post- Cold War International System (1992-present)

• Cold War threats were potentially catastrophic
  but they were also measurable and somewhat
  predictable
• The bipolar structure and the desire to avoid
  superpower confrontation had provided a certain
  degree of order and stability
• The post Cold War period was much more ambiguous
  and uncertain and many new threats emerged

CIA Director James Woolsey described the
post-Cold War environment by saying, We have
slain a large dragon (the U.S.S.R.) but we now
live in a jungle filled with a bewildering
variety of poisonous snakes. In many ways, the
dragon was easier to keep track of.
77
Post- Cold War International System
(1992-present)

• The Cold War structure had kept in check ethnic
  divisions in many countries and limited military
  interventions
• The end of the Cold War changed all that
• UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali
  advocated the legitimate involvement of the UN
  in peace enforcement and peacemaking
  operations
• After the Cold War, the United Nations went from
  an average of three or four peacekeeping
  operations a year to 13 in December 1992

78
Post- Cold War International System
(1992-present)

• Bosnia
• Somalia
• Rwanda
• East Timor
• Kosovo
• Liberia
• Sudan

Rwandan children in the refugee camp at Ndosha,
Zaire
79
Post- Cold War International System
(1992-present)

• In a globalized war, bad things that happen in
  other countries spread more quickly to our
  shores. Genocides spawn refugees, who
  destabilize their neighbors. Corruption sparks
  financial meltdowns, which rock the world
  economy. Pandemics hopscotch across the globe.
• Peter Beinart in explaining why the US intervened
  in Kosovo where there was no direct threat to
  the US (Time, 23 Apr 2007, 28)

80
Post- Cold War International System
(1992-present)

• The United Nations Charter proclaims one of the
  UNs principle purposes as being to maintain
  international peace and security
• Sometimes the UN effectively intervened in these
  crises, sometimes it didnt
• Same for the United States
• The US found that its status as world economic
  and military superpower would not necessarily
  equate to unchallenged world leadership
• The US would meet a host of challenges within the
  UN and from non-governmental organizations as
  well as from new enemies

81
Post- Cold War International System (1992-present)

• UN Charter Chapter VI
• Pacific Settlement of Disputes
• Security Council can investigate any dispute, or
  any situation which might lead to international
  friction or give rise to a dispute
• Council can recommend action but the
  recommendations are not binding on its members
• UN Charter Chapter VII
• Council is not limited to recommendations
• Can take action, including the use of armed
  force, to maintain or restore international peace
  and security
• Peacekeeping operations often are called Chapter
  VI and a half

82
Post- Cold War International System
(1992-present)

• Limitations of the UN
• No army of its own
• Reliant on ad hoc contributions from its members
• Can never divorce itself from the political
  agendas of its members
• Inadequately trained staff of military
  professionals and managers

83
Post- Cold War International System
(1992-present)

• The post-Cold War era included an ever-widening
  gap between rich industrialized nations (mostly
  in the Northern Hemisphere) and poor agricultural
  ones (mostly in the Southern Hemisphere)
• The goal of all poor nations is economic growth,
  but most lack the requirements for industrial
  development
• Trapped in a cycle of poverty lack of capital
  resulting from low production leads to low
  savings which in turn means little or no
  available capital for future development projects

84
Post- Cold War International System (1992-present)

• The collapse of communism in the USSR and Eastern
  Europe opened up huge economic markets
• On the other hand West Germanys previously
  booming economy struggled as it tried to
  integrate the much poorer former East Germany
• In 2004, the EU swelled to 25 members including
  the former Soviet republics of Latvia, Lithuania,
  and Estonia

As Germany moved its capital from Bonn to Berlin,
construction projects were rampant
85
Post- Cold War International System
(1992-present)

• Failed states became fertile ground for terrorist
  safe havens, black market activities,
  humanitarian crises, and general chaos
• Lack of state capacity in poor countries has
  come to haunt the developed world much more
  directly.. Suddenly the ability to shore up or
  to create from whole cloth missing state
  capabilities and institutions has risen to the
  top of the global agenda and seems likely to be a
  major condition for security in important parts
  of the world. Thus state weakness is both a
  national and an international issue of the first
  order.
• Francis Fukuyama, State-Building, x-xi

86
Case Study

• September 11

87
Islamism

• As globalization spread, many Muslims became
  skeptical about European and American models of
  economic development and political and cultural
  norms
• Blamed the Western models for their own economic
  and political problems as well as for
  secularization and its attendant breakdown of
  traditional social and religious values
• Saw the Muslim world as slipping into a state of
  decline brought about by the abandonment of
  Islamic traditions and many blamed the US

The Saudi Arabian Mutaween, or religious police,
enforce the Islamic dress code
88
Islamist Reaction

• Many saw the solution to the problems faced by
  Muslim societies as being a revival of Islamic
  identity, values, and power
• Most sought to bring about change through
  peaceful means, but an extremist minority has
  claimed a mandate from God that calls for violent
  transformations

Supporters of Hizbut Tahrir, a hardline Muslim
group, protesting in front of the US Embassy in
Jakarta, Indonesia
89
Jihad

• Convinced that the Muslim world is under siege,
  extremists used the concept of the jihad to
  rationalize and legitimize terrorism and
  revolution
• Jihad is sometimes called the Sixth Pillar of
  Islam and is an exertion or struggle in achieving
  the ways of Allah
• It invokes the right and duty to defend Islam and
  the Islamic community from unjust attack

Members of the Islamic Jihads military wing, the
Al-Quds Brigade, in Gaza
90
Extremist Rhetoric

• God has blessed a group of vanguard Muslims, the
  forefront of Islam, to destroy America."
• Osama bin Laden in a videotaped statement
  broadcast by Al Jazeera, October 7, 2001
• We issue the following fatwa to all Muslims The
  ruling to kill the Americans and their allies --
  civilians and military -- is an individual duty
  for every Muslim who can do it in any country in
  which it is possible to do it....We -- with God's
  help -- call on every Muslim who believes in God
  and wishes to be rewarded to comply with God's
  order to kill the Americans and plunder their
  money wherever and whenever they find it.
• World Islamic Front Statement, February 23, 1998
  

91
Clash of Civilizations

• On both sides the interaction between Islam and
  the West is seen as a clash of civilizations.
• Samuel Huntington

92
Huntingtons Civilizations
Western
Slavic- Orthodox
Sinic
Japanese
Latin American
Islamic
Hindu
African
93
Osama bin Laden

• Osama bin Laden began his militancy in response
  to the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
• He helped found the Maktab al-Khadamat (MAK)
  which recruited and funded mujahideen to fight
  the Soviets
• Ironically, the US also supported the mujahideen
  based on the Cold War philosophy that the enemy
  of my enemy is my friend

94
al-Qaeda
Part of the post-Desert Storm US military
presence at Prince Sultan Air Base, 80 km south
of Riyadh

• In 1988, bin Laden split from the MAK and formed
  a new group comprised of some of the most
  militant mujahideen that would become the
  al-Qaeda terrorist group
• With the US involvement in Desert Storm and its
  subsequent continued presence in Saudi Arabia,
  home of the Muslim holy sites of Mecca and
  Medina, bin Laden became irreconcilably
  infuriated by the Western influence

95
September 11, 2001

• On Sept 11, 2001, 19 men affiliated with al-Qaeda
  hijacked four planes and crashed two into the
  World Trade Towers in New York City and one into
  the Pentagon
• The fourth plane crashed in Pennsylvania after
  passengers attacked the terrorists

96
Terrorism

• The deliberate and systematic use of violence
  against civilians with the aim of advancing
  political, religious, or ideological cause
• Terrorism is not a new phenomenon, but its impact
  has been magnified in a globalized world
  distinguished by rapid technological advances in
  transportation, communications, and weapons
  development
• Worldwide television coverage has transformed
  terrorism by expanding its visibility and impact

97
al-Qaedas International Presence at the Time of
the Sept 11 Attack
98
Global War on Terrorism

• On Sept 20, President Bush addressed the nation
  and declared Our war on terror begins with al
  Qaeda, but it does not end there.  It will not
  end until every terrorist group of global reach
  has been found, stopped and defeated Our
  response involves far more than instant
  retaliation and isolated strikes.  Americans
  should not expect one battle, but a lengthy
  campaign, unlike any other we have ever seen.  It
  may include dramatic strikes, visible on TV, and
  covert operations, secret even in success.

99
Global War on Terrorism

•  We will starve terrorists of funding, turn them
  one against another, drive them from place to
  place, until there is no refuge or no rest.  And
  we will pursue nations that provide aid or safe
  haven to terrorism.  Every nation, in every
  region, now has a decision to make. Either you
  are with us, or you are with the
  terrorists.  From this day forward, any nation
  that continues to harbor or support terrorism
  will be regarded by the United States as a
  hostile regime.

100
Operation Enduring Freedom

• The Sept 11 attack was quickly traced to Osama
  bin Laden who had been operating from Afghanistan
  since his 1996 expulsion from Saudi Arabia
• On Oct 7, 2001, the US led a coalition attack
  into Afghanistan to destroy terrorist training
  camps and infrastructure, capture al-Qaeda
  leaders, and eliminate terrorist activities in
  Afghanistan
• By mid-March 2002, the Taliban government had
  been removed from power and the al-Qaeda network
  in Afghanistan had been severely crippled

CENTCOM Commander General Tommy Franks explains
Operation Enduring Freedom
101
September 11

• How does the terrorist attack of September 11 and
  the Global War on Terrorism represent Post- Cold
  War International System international system in
  terms of
• Globalization
• Changing threats
• The New World Order
• Clashes of civilizations
• The role of the UN
• The role of the US

102
Nontraditional Actors

• Global media
• Nongovernmental organizations
• Global corporations

103
Media Coverage The Old Way

• 1938 the first regular broadcast of daily news
  began on radio, with the World Today program on
  CBS for 15 minutes every evening,
• 1948 the CBS TV News began
• 1963 CBS Evening News expanded from 15 to 30
  minutes, followed shortly by NBC, and then by ABC
  in 1967
• 1968 CBS began the 60 Minutes news
  magazine/documentary weekly show

CBS News correspondent Eric Sevareid, 1955
104
24/7 News

• 1980 Cable News Network (CNN) became the world's
  first 24-hour cable television news channel
• 1996 MSNBC and Fox News Channel began 24-hour
  news
• Collectively, expanded television news coverage
  creates the CNN effect which affects political,
  diplomatic, and military decision making on a
  global level

105
al Jazeera

• Founded in 1996 and based in Qatar
• Fastest growing network among Arab communities
  and Arabic speaking people around the world 
• Focuses primarily on news coverage and analysis
  with a markedly anti-Western slant

106
bin Laden and al Jazeera

• For someone who scorned modernity and
  globalization, and who took refuge in an Islamic
  state that banned television, bin Laden proved
  remarkably adept at public diplomacy. In the
  wake of the September 11 attacks, bin Laden
  turned to al Jazeera to reach the two audiences
  that were essential to his plans the Western
  news media and the Arab masses.
• David Hoffman, Beyond Public Diplomacy

107
Influence of the Media

• Agenda setting
• Shaping public opinion
• Policy-makers

Tiananmen Square, June 4, 1989
108
Agenda Setting

• The mass media may not be successful in telling
  people what to think, but the media are
  stunningly successful in telling their audience
  what to think about.
• If a tree falls in the woods and CNN doesnt
  cover it, did it really fall?
• Bruce W. Jentleson, American Foreign Policy The
  Dynamics of Choice in the 21st Century

109
Shaping Public Opinion

• Framing
• How the media casts an issue affects the
  sustentative judgments people make about the
  issue.
• Priming
• The priority the media gives to an issue affects
  the priority people give to the issue.

110
Donald Rumsfeld on the Media Coverage of OIF

• And interestingly we have seen mood swings in
  the media from highs to lows to highs and back
  again, sometimes in a single 24-hour period.
• For some, the massive volume of television - and
  it is massive - and the breathless reports can
  seem to be somewhat disorienting. Fortunately,
  my sense is that the American people have a very
  good center of gravity and can absorb and balance
  what they see and hear.

111
Policy-makers

• Policy-makers often ask themselves What will the
  media think? as they formulate a course of
  action
• Political spin becomes extremely important

112
Case Study

• Somalia

113
Somalia

• Drought, famine, clan violence, corruption, and
  inefficient government had created a humanitarian
  crisis in Somalia in the 1990s.
• One of the main sources of power had been the
  control of food supplies. 
• Hijacked food was used to secure the loyalty of
  clan leaders, and food was routinely exchanged
  with other countries for weapons.
• In the early 1990s up to 80 of internationally
  provided food was stolen. 
• Between 1991 and 1992 over 300,000 Somalis were
  estimated to have died of starvation. 
• UN relief efforts were unsuccessful, largely due
  to looting.
• The U.N. asked its member nations for assistance. 

114
Somalia

• In December 1992, President George Bush proposed
  to the U.N. that United States combat troops lead
  the intervention force. 
• The U.N. accepted this offer and 25,000 U.S.
  troops were deployed to Somalia.

115
Somalia Entry

• Stark images from Somalia, transmitted to the
  world via satellite, helped shape public opinion
  and pressured the United Nations to take action
• One famous picture was this one of Aabiba Nuur,
  who weighed only 46 pounds

116
Somalia Entry

• President Bush said that as he and his wife,
  Barbara, watched television and saw those
  starving kids in quest of a little pitiful cup
  of rice, he called Secretary of Defense Dick
  Cheney and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
  General Colin Powell and told them Please come
  over to the White House. I we cant watch
  this anymore. Youve got to do something.
• Craig Hines in a Houston Chronicle article titled
  Pity, not U. S. Security, Motivated Use of GIs
  in Somalia

117
Somalia Exit

• Two Black Hawk helicopters were shot down in the
  battle of Mogadishu in Oct 1993
• Pictures included a US soldier being dragged
  through the streets of Mogadishu

118
Somalia Perception

• Nineteen US soldiers were killed and over 70 were
  wounded
• Conservative estimates say more than 500
  Somalians were killed and over 1,000 injured
• "The perception of an operation can be as
  important to success as the execution of that
  operation."
• MG Charles McClain

119
Somalia

• We went into Somalia because of horrible
  television images we will leave Somalia because
  of horrible television images.
• Marianne Means
• We had been drawn to this place by television
  images now we were being repelled by them. The
  President immediately conducted a policy review
  that resulted in a plan for withdrawal over the
  next six months.
• Colin Powell

120
Sudan and Somalia

• As the contrasting responses to the seemingly
  similar Somalia and Sudan cases suggest, media
  coverage can have a significant impact.
• Arnold Kanter, Intervention Decisionmaking in the
  Bush Administration

Refugees in Sudan
121
Why?

• Why should international institutions exist at
  all in a world dominated by sovereign states?
• Rhetorical question posed by Robert Keohane

122
Because.

• Global problems require global solutions. We
  fall together or we succeed together.
• Joseph Deiss, Minister of Economic Affairs of
  Switzerland

Air pollution obscures the ground in this aerial
photo of China
Diseases such as bird flu threaten to become
pandemics
123
Tension of Globalization

• Traditional nation-states have difficulties
  handling problems of a global magnitude
• A plethora of nongovernmental international
  organizations that do not respect territorial
  boundaries and are beyond the reach of national
  governments have sprung up to try to tackle the
  problem
• Usually focus on a largely singular agenda

124
Some NGOs and their Agendas

• Red Cross
• Relieve suffering to wounded soldiers and
  prisoners of war
• Greenpeace
• Preserve the earths natural resources and animal
  and plant life
• Amnesty International
• Ensure human rights

125
Some IGOs and their Agendas

• An organization of sovereign nations devoted to a
  agenda of international scope or character
• United Nations
• Maintain international peace and security
• World Trade Organization
• Foster free trade

126
The Reduction of Sovereignty

• Under the WTO, member countries cannot tax or
  limit imports made under unfair or unsafe labor
  conditions. The same can be said for those
  imports that significantly harm the global
  environment during production. National
  sovereignty is what is at stake, since countries
  do not retain the ability to choose for
  themselves.
• David Carstens, Bringing Environmental and
  Economic Internationalism into US Strategy

Pro-democracy protests in China in 1989 resulted
in the massive government crackdown at Tiananmen
Square
127
Corporations

• International corporations sought to extend
  business activities across borders in pursuit of
  specific activities such as importation,
  exportation, and the extraction of raw materials
• Multinational corporations conducted business in
  several countries but had to operate within the
  confines of specific laws and customs of a given
  society

128
Corporations

• Global corporations rely on a small headquarters
  staff while dispersing all other corporate
  functions across the globe in search of the
  lowest possible operating costs
• Treat the world as a single market and act as if
  the nation-state no longer exists
• Some 50,000 global corporations exist, including
  General Motors, Siemens AG, and Nestle

129
Case Study

• United Fruit Company

130
Latin American Dependence

• Latin America in the 19th Century was plagued by
  division, rebellion, caudillo rule, civil war,
  instability, and conflict
• Add that to colonial legacies that lacked
  economic development and local industry in Latin
  America and the pattern was set for foreign
  dependence
• Because its economy required foreign investment
  to survive, Latin America became subject to
  decisions made in the interests of foreign
  investors
• Latin American governments were controlled by the
  elites who profited from foreign involvement at
  the expense of the citizenry, so the governments
  actually encouraged Latin Americas economic
  dependence

131
Case Study United Fruit Company

• From 1899 to 1970, UFCO was prominent in the
  trade of bananas and other fruit from Latin
  America to Europe and the US
• An archetypal example of multinational influence
  extending deeply into the internal politics
• Banana republics and neocolonialism

The Peten, one of many ships in UFCOs Great
White Fleet
132
Case Study United Fruit Company

• In addition to owning vast tracts of land, the
  UFCO dominated regional transportation networks
  and owned a major railroad corporation
• In 1913, UFCO extended its reach by creating the
  Tropical Radio and Telegraph Company
• By the end of the decade there would be virtually
  no aspect of the economic infrastructure of Latin
  American banana production untouched by the UFCO

133
Case Study United Fruit Company

• One of the companys primary tactics for
  maintaining market dominance was to control the
  distribution of banana lands.
• UFCO claimed that hurricanes, blight and other
  natural threats required them to hold extra land
  or reserve land.
• In practice that meant UFCO was able to prevent
  the government from distributing banana lands to
  peasants who wanted a share of the banana trade.
• For UFCO to maintain its unequal land holdings,
  it had to have government concessions.
• This in turn meant that UFCO had to be
  politically involved in the region even though it
  was an American company.

134
Case Study United Fruit Company

• When Guatemalan President Jacobo Arbenz Guzman
  tried to seize thousands of acres of uncultivated
  land owned by the UFCO in 1953, President
  Eisenhower empowered the CIA to engineer the
  overthrow of Arbenzs government
• A US-supported coup toppled Arbenzs government
  in 1954 and returned the land to the UFCO

Castillo Armas established a military government
after the ouster of the democratically elected
Arbenz, who the US feared had communist leanings
135
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