ARAB MIDDLE EAST IN THE MODERN ERA

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ARAB MIDDLE EAST IN THE MODERN ERA
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Zones of Agricultural Production
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Significance of the region for the Early-Modern
Ottoman Empire
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The Ottoman Levant before 1800

• Ottomans in Syria 1516, in Egypt 1517
• 16067 The rebellion of Ali Pasha Janbulat of
  Aleppo, member of a powerful Kurdish clan in
  northern Syria.
• 1613 An Ottoman army moved against Fakhr al-Din
  II of Lebanon for his encroachment on territories
  in the province of Damascus. Fakhr al-Din fled to
  Italy but returned to power in 1618 after
  obtaining an amnesty from Istanbul
• 1623 Fakhr al-Din attacked the governor of
  Damascus to dislodge him
• 1635 The Ottomans arrested and put to death Fakhr
  al-Din in Istanbul and replaced his
  administration with the Manid family until 1697
• 1711 Amir Haydar Shihab consolidated the hegemony
  of the Shihab family which governed the region
  for the Ottoman Empire until 1842
• 1771 Governor of Egypt, in alliance with the
  governor of of Galilee, Zahir al-Umar, overthrew
  Ottoman authority in Palestine and captured
  Damascus.
• 1775 Zahir al-Umar was removed from power by an
  Egyptian force acting on behalf of the Ottoman
  government. Soon after he was killed, and his
  territories reverted to the provinces of Damascus
  and Sidon. Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar (the Butcher),
  a ruthless power figure of Bosnian origin, was
  appointed governor of Sidon to restore Ottoman
  authority there. He made Acre the base of a
  powerful dominion extending over Palestine and
  southern Syria.
• Following a revolt in 1775 central authority in
  Aleppo declined as the Janissaries and the ashraf
  (local notables who claim to be descendants of
  the prophet Muhammad) steadily took control. This
  was the first in a string of such revolts during
  the next 30 years (1784, 1787, 1791, and 1804).

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The Ottoman Levant before 1800

• The significance of local notables for effective
  administration
• The Lebanese Maronite Order
• An eastern catholic order following the teachings
  of St Maroun (5th century Christian monk) with
  significant following in the Levant
• The Lebanese Maronite order was founded in
  1700, by permission from the Patriarch Istifan
  al-Doweihy.
• Local notables served as patrons of the church
• 1711 rise of the Shihab family
• 1750s the emergence of a relatively independent
  church active in politics
• Bashir Shihab II (1788-1840) and the Maronites
  vs. Ottomans and the Druzes
• French interest in the region

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Ethno-religious Diversity
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19th Century Transformations in the Levant

• Increased colonial significance
• The local impact of cash crops
• Credit and financing
• Land laws
• Reforms for a modern state
• The Ottomans
• Young Ottomans and the significance of
  administration
• The Egyptians
• Muhammad Ali and the significance of
  industrialization
• The French and the British
• Education, conversion (Saint-Simonism)
• Muhammad Alis expansion

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19th Century Transformations in the Levant

• Increased colonial significance
• The local impact of cash crops
• Reforms for a modern state
• Muhammad Alis expansion
• Young Turks and Turkish Nationalism
• Consequences
• Arab Nationalism and the Ottoman Empire
• Faith in modernization
• Politics of Minorities and foreign powers

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WWI and the Middle East

• Husayn bin Ali
• Significance of Mecca
• Husayn Mc-Mahon correspondence.

1916 Husayn became the King and rebelled against
the Ottoman forces with T. E. Lawrence. 1917
Husayns son Faysal became the governor of
Damascus
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WWI and the Middle East
1919 WW I ended oil, oil, oil 1920 San Remo
Conference What is going to happen to Faysal?
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Iraq

• 1920 a home found for the homeless king
• Anti British revolt in North
• 1922 Kurdish revolt
• Anglo-Iraqi Treaty Military, financial,
  judicial, foreign affairs
• 1924 Anglo-Turkish Treaty on the status of Mosul.
  
• Constitutional Monarchy
• 1930 GB control limited
• Kurdish revolt
• 1932 Kurdish revolt
• 1937 Sadabad Pact

• OIL
• 1912 TPC was formed to explore for Iraqi oil.
  APOCfuture BPowned 50
• 1925 TPC obtained a concession to explore for
  oil. Independent Iraqi government was given a
  generous share from a potential find (20-yrs
  delay)
• 1927-8 Oil was found, company restructured. APOC,
  Royal Dutch/Shell, the Compagnie française des
  pétroles (predecessor of Total), and the Near
  East Development Corporation (a consortium of
  five large US oil companies, incl. Standard Oil)
  each received 23.7 of the shares, and Gulbenkian
  5. Did we forget anything?
• Monopoly power and limited production until 1961

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Iraq a timeline

• Interwar years
• Educational reform 1920 -10,000 students, 1950
  -240,000.
• Political Instability 59 governments between
  1921-1958
• Rebellions Kurds, Assyrians and Tribal Leaders
• Coup détats 1936, 1940, 1941
• 1945-1958 British supported the Sunni Monarchy
• 1947 Baath Party was founded in Syria
• 1955 Baghdad Pact Turkey and Iraq. Great
  Britain, Pakistan, and Iran (Same
  year with Bandung Conference)
• 1958 Coup détat end of Monarchy, Abd al-Karim
  Qassim
• 1959 Repudiation of the Baghdad Pact
• 1960 Venezuela, Iran, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia
  OPEC
• 1961 Revoking of Oil concessions (1953-Iran,
  1956-Egypt)
• Kuwaiti Fund for Arab Economic Development
• 1963 Coup détat end of Qassim, Baath Party
  (CIA)
• 1964 The Arab Common Market, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan,
  and Syria.
• 1967 10 Arab states oil embargo against the U.S.
  and Britain (June-August)
• 1968 Kuwait, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Algeria,
  Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Qatar, Syria, the United
  Arab Emirates, and Tunisia (OAPEC)
• Coup détat end of Bath, Husayn s Takriti
  Baath Party

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Iraq Husayn years 1968-today

• A very strict party organization
• 1972 Iraqi Petroleum Company nationalized
• 1973 Oil crisis and increased revenues
• Massive education reforms
• Award-winning free health care services
• Infrastructural investments in transportation
• Agricultural subsidies and cooperatives
• Industrialization and mining
• Judicial secularization
• Mukhabarat
• Osirak and Israel
• Oppression Kurds Iran
• Kuwait

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Jordan

• 1922 Established by the British, Amir Abdallah
  was imported as the ruler
• 1928 Constitutional Monarchy
• 1930 John Bagot Glubb and the AL
• Army state vs. state for an army
• 1946 Independent
• Post-1948 Jordan x 3
• 1951 Assasination of Abdallah. King Husayn
• 1952 Constitution
• June 67 (Six-day War)
• 1970 Black September
• 1978 National Consultative Council-a step toward
  democracy
• 1988 Back to trans-Jordan
• 1991 End of martial law
• 1993 Multi-party election (20)
• 1994 Peace Treaty w/ Israel
• 1997 parliamentary elections a failure?

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Formation of the State of Israel

• Rising nationalisms and persecutions at the turn
  of the century
• Re-drawing the boundaries of western Eurasia
• Imagining nations
• 1896 Theodor Herzl, The Jewish State
• 1899 Zionist Federation of Great Britain and
  Ireland
• Husayn-McMahon Rothschild Balfour correspondence

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• The Balfour Declaration
• Foreign Office
• November 2nd, 1917
• Dear Lord Rothschild,
• I have much pleasure in conveying to you, on
  behalf of His Majesty's Government, the following
  declaration of sympathy with Jewish Zionist
  aspirations which has been submitted to, and
  approved by, the Cabinet.
• "His Majesty's Government view with favour the
  establishment in Palestine of a national home for
  the Jewish people, and will use their best
  endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this
  object, it being clearly understood that nothing
  shall be done which may prejudice the civil and
  religious rights of existing non-Jewish
  communities in Palestine, or the rights and
  political status enjoyed by Jews in any other
  country."
• I should be grateful if you would bring this
  declaration to the knowledge of the Zionist
  Federation.
• Yours sincerely,
• Arthur James Balfour

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Formation of the State of Israel

• Early settlements
• Why migrate?
• Where to?
• How to make a living?
• Understanding the heterogeneity of the Jewish
  community
• 1939-almost half a million
• 1930s Middle East and the world
• Increased agitation and frustration

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• The White Paper of 1939
• "His Majesty's Government believe that the
  framers of the Mandate in which the Balfour
  Declaration was embodied could not have intended
  that Palestine should be converted into a Jewish
  State against the will of the Arab population of
  the country. ... His Majesty's Government
  therefore now declare unequivocally that it is
  not part of their policy that Palestine should
  become a Jewish State. They would indeed regard
  it as contrary to their obligations to the Arabs
  under the Mandate, as well as to the assurances
  which have been given to the Arab people in the
  past, that the Arab population of Palestine
  should be made the subjects of a Jewish State
  against their will."
• "The objective of His Majesty's Government is the
  establishment within 10 years of an independent
  Palestine State in such treaty relations with the
  United Kingdom as will provide satisfactorily for
  the commercial and strategic requirements of both
  countries in the future. .. The independent
  State should be one in which Arabs and Jews share
  government in such a way as to ensure that the
  essential interests of each community are
  safeguarded."

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Arab-Israeli Conflict

• Putting the conflict in a context the Arab
  Middle East in the 1950s
• Baath Party 1947
• Suez canal 1956
• End of Iraqi monarchy 1958
• Refugees in Jordon and Lebanon
• A heterogeneous resistance
• Earlier groups
• 1967 PLO
• Al-Fatah
• Popular Front

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1967 war End of Nasser Realization of Israels
power. Reflections of the change in the conflict
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Arab-Israeli Conflict

• The exiles in the 1980s and 1990s
• Radicalization of the Islamic groups
• 1987 intifada
• A heterogeneous Knesset
• 1993 Oslo Accords
• What the future holds

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