Music

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• A Brief Overview of Music Music Education in
  the History of Ideas
• --from Antiquity to the Present
• James F. Daugherty, Ph.D.
• University of Kansas

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Question

• What do Stadium Australia and the 2001Sydney
  Olympics have to do with the history and
  philosophy of music education?

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Film Clips

• Opening Ceremonies
• Advance Australia Fair

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Doctrine of Ethos

• Music contributes to
• Character formation
• Moral education
• Citizenship

• eqos
• Ethics
• Ethnic
• Ethnology

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mousikh

• mousike
• for the Greeks, a combination of music,
  poetry(text), and dance
• broadly, any human activity
• governed by the Muses

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areth

• arete
• virtue, excellence

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Some Examples of Ethos

• Platonic Tradition
• Plato
• Aristotle
• Allan Bloom, Closing of the American Mind
• Censorship of Contemporary Rock Lyrics
• Debate over religious music in public schools

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Letter to the Editor

• --from THE TALLAHASSEE DEMOCRAT (March 6, 1995)
• My daughter was thrilled to try out for Sable
  Palm Chorus that fourth-and fifth-graders only
  are allowed to participate. She approached me
  with the idea a week ago about tryouts, in which
  I encouraged her. I thought chorus would improve
  her self-esteem.
• Unfortunately, she and others were not accepted
  for chorus, and she was heartbroken. Im not
  aware of the criteria for acceptance in chorus,
  except for singing abilities. Lets be
  reasonable. These are 9- and 10-year old
  students with singing voices that have not
  developed, as opposed to teen-agers.

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Continued...

• Years ago, when I was in school, whomever was
  interested in joining the chorus would simply
  sign up. There wasnt any such of a thing as
  tryouts. Chorus is a school activity, which
  enhances kids to become sociable, to build
  self-confidence and to learn team effort. Any
  and every student who desires to join the
  elementary chorus should be able to, regardless
  of their singing abilities.
• If the issue is about limitation on students in
  the chorus, then there should be two groups, in
  addition to other types of activities for
  students that would perhaps build their
  confidence.
• Carmelita M. Williams

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The Music Man

• Whats the solution to trouble in
• River City?

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From ethos to symbolism

• Plato, although an exemplar of ethos, was also
  influenced by his 6th century predecessor,
  Pythagoras.
• Platos thought is also indebted to Pythagoras
  and especially his mystical numerology (e.g.
  Timaeus)

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Doctrine of Symbolism

• Idealism
• Music as metaphysical or cosmological a
  reflection of supernatural truth
• Dualism

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Pythagoras of Samos (6th c B.C.)

• His influence on the ideas, and thereby on the
  destiny, of the human race was probably greater
  than that of any single man before or after him.
• --Arthur Koestler, The Sleepwalkers

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Pythagorean Thought

• Mysticism and Science
• The Great Theme (James) the cosmos is a
  sublimely harmonious system guided by a Supreme
  Intelligence
• Music and the human soul are both aspects of the
  eternal
• Inter-relatedness of all human knowledge

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Pythagorean Table of Opposites

• Limited
• Odd
• Right
• Male
• Rest
• Straight
• Light
• Good
• Square

• Unlimited
• Even
• Left
• Female
• Motion
• Curved
• Dark
• Bad
• Oblong

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Importance of Number

• The Pythagorean system expressed these concepts
  with numbers

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Music and number

• The Pythagoreans, as they are called, devoted
  themselves to mathematics they were the first to
  advance this study, and having been brought up in
  it they thought its principles were the
  principles of all things. Since of these
  principles numbers are by nature the first, and
  in numbers they seem to see many resemblances to
  the things that exist and come into being
  since, again, they say that the attributes and
  ratios of the musical scales were expressible in
  numbers since, then, all other things seemed in
  their whole nature to be modeled after numbers,
  and numbers seemed to be the first things in the
  whole of nature, they supposed the elements of
  numbers to be the elements of all things, and the
  whole heaven to be a musical scale and number.
• --Aristotle, Metaphysics

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Pythagoras Discovery

• an exact correspondence between the abstract
  world of musical sounds and the abstract world of
  numbers
• the musical intervals produced by the hammers
  were exactly equivalent to the ratios between the
  hammers weights

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Musical Intervals

• Once as Pythagoras was intently considering
  music, and reasoning with himself whether it
  would be possible to devise some instrumental
  assistance to the sense of hearing, so as to
  systematize it, as sight is made precise by the
  compass, rule, and surveying instrument, or touch
  is made reckonable by balance and measure--so
  thinking of these things Pythagoras happened to
  pass by a braziers shop, where he heard the
  hammers beating out a piece of iron on an anvil,
  producing sounds that harmonized, except one.
  But he recognized in these sounds the concord of
  the octave, the fifth, and the fourth. He saw
  that athe sound between the fourth and the fifth,
  taken by itself, was a dissonance, and yet
  completed the great sound among them.
• ---Iamblichus biography

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Tetractys

• X
• X X
• X X X
• X X X X
• 1--gtunity, identity, equality
• 2--gtdyad principle of dichotomy
• 3--gtemblem of beginning, middle, end
• 4--gtnumber of points required to construct a
  pyramid, the simplest of the perfect solids
• Adding together these four numbers10, the basis
  of Pythagorean and our mathematics

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3 Types of Music in Pythagorean Thought

• ordinary music (made by plucking the lyre,
  blowing the pipe, etc.)
• the continuous but unheard music made by each
  human organism, especially the harmonious/inharmon
  ious resonance between soul and body
• the music made by the cosmos itself (later known
  as Music of the Spheres)

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Music

• In Pythagorean thought, music exists quite
  independently of human beings
• If a tree falls in the forest and there is no
  one around to hear it, is there sound?

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Music as healer

• since ordinary music and music made by resonance
  of the human organism are of the same essence,
  plucking the strings of a lyre could arouse
  sympathetic vibrations in the human instrument
• Roots of Music Therapy

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Anecdote

• A young man from Taormina had been up all night
  partying with friends and listening to songs in
  the Phrygian mode, a key well known for its
  ability to incite violence. When the aggravated
  lad saw the girl he loved sneaking away in the
  wee hours of the morning from the home of his
  rival, he determined to go burn her house down.
• Pythagoras happened to be out late himself,
  star-gazing, and he walked in on this violent
  scene. He convinced the piper to change his tune
  from the Phrygian mode to a song in spondees, a
  tranquilizing meter. The young mans madness
  instantly cooled, and he was restored to reason.
• --from a biography of Pythagoras by Iamblichus

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Pythagoreanism in ongoing language

• Perfect Intervals
• Unison
• Fourth
• Fifth
• Octave
• Tritone
• diabolus in musica, the devil in music

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Music of the Spheres

• Pythagoras believed that the motion of bodies
  that size must produce a noise, since on our
  earth the motion of bodies far inferior in size
  and speed of movement has that effect. Also,
  when the sun and the moon, they say, and all the
  stars, so great in number and in size, are moving
  with so rapid a motion, how should they not
  produce a sound immensely great? Starting from
  this argument, and the observation that their
  speeds, as measured by their distances, are in
  the same ratios as musical concordances, they
  assert that the sound given forth by the circular
  movement of the stars is a harmony.
• --Aristotle, On the Heavens

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Boethius

• Musica speculativa
• Musica practica
• Musica speculativa reflected still today in
  curricula of such institutions as
• Harvard University
• University of Virginia

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Plato

• A Case Study of Interactions Between Ethos
  Symbolism

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Plato

• Ars gratia republicae art for the sake of the
  republic
• Beauty is not that which induces a pleasurable
  sensation, but that which enobles and leads a
  person to a just and temperate life

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Plato

• Supremacy of Reason
• Doctrine of Forms
• Doctrine of Recollection

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Plato

• Allegory of the Cave

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Plato

• Music is so powerful that it can mislead, or
  corrupt the path to reality, the true or ideal
  world
• Music must be regulated, censored
• Music itself is not a path to the ideal, but
  properly guarded, can prepare the soul to journey
  there

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Interaction of Ethos Symbolism Some Examples

• Judaeo-Christian Tradition
• Psalmody Psalters
• Augustine
• Luther
• Calvin
• Singing Schools
• Vatican II

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1837 Statement of the special committee on music
of the Boston School Committee

• Let vocal Music be examined by this standard.
• Morally There is,-- who has not felt it--, a
  mysterious connection, ordained undoubtedly for
  wise purposes, between certain sounds and the
  moral sentiments of man.It is an ultimate law of
  mans nature.Now it is a curious fact, that the
  natural scale of musical sound can only produce
  good, virtuous, and kindly feelings.And, if such
  be the case,, if there be this necessary
  concordance between certain sounds and certain
  trains of moral feeling, is it unphilosophical to
  say that exercises in vocal Music may be so
  directed and arranged as to produce those habits
  of feeling of which these sounds are types.These
  qualities are connected intimately with the moral
  government of the individual. Why should they
  not, under proper management, be rendered equally
  efficient in the moral government of the school?
  

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Letter to the Editor

• --from THE NEW YORK TIMES (February 9, 1997)
• To the Editor
• Bernard Holland in Listening Is Either/Or. Or
  Is It? (Feb. 2), asks, Does one turn the pages
  of A Man Without Qualities while making love?
  Perhaps this would indeed require being in a
  sexual position unknown to Masters and Johnson,
  but where is the lover who is not carried away,
  whose ardor is not enhanced, by the sound of a
  violin or a guitar? Where is the soldier who is
  not encouraged by the military march or patriotic
  anthem? Where is the pious man unmoved by the
  sound of the organ or choir?
• Music has always been an accompaniment to other
  activities, and, far from lowering the status of
  music, this situation has usually raised it.

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Continued...

• Old governments that understood their purpose to
  be the formation of human character rather than
  the protection of rights knew that certain kinds
  of music lend themselves to certain kinds of
  activities and to certain forms of soul or
  character. Therefore, they took music seriously
  and even practiced censorship.

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Continued...

• Mr. Hollands real complaint is that classical
  music is now an accompaniment to shopping rather
  to other, more serious activities, and, with
  this, Mr. Holland makes a fair point about the
  silliness of modern life. But I wonder if he
  would prefer to return to political orders in
  which the question of character (and, therefore,
  music) is of primary importance and in which
  consumerism does not exist. If Mr. Holland likes
  liberal democracy, then he must stop whining
  about Mozart being piped into Bloomingdales for
  democracy and consumerism are concomitant.
• John Coumarianos
• Brookline, Mass.

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Music as Science

• Music as Art
• Music as Fine Art

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Seven Liberal Arts Martianus Capella

• Quadrivium
• Geometry
• Astronomy
• Music
• Arithmetic

• Trivium
• Language
• Rhetoric
• Logic

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Quadrivium

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Music and Science

• Pythagoras discovery of the arithmetical basis
  of musical intervals was not just the beginning
  of music theory it was the beginning of science.
  For the first time, man (sic) discovered that
  universal truths could be explained through
  systematic investigation and the use of symbols
  such as mathematics.
• -J. James, The Music of the Spheres

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Music as Art

• Renaissance Humanism Back to the Greeks, but
  also
• Literary Model Music as human expression (On to
  man as the measure of all things)
• Vitality of Texted Music
• Music begins shift from the quadrivium to the
  trivium

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Today St. Johns College Curriculum

• Based on Hellenistic principles and Renaissance
  models
• All students take chorus as a required subject
  their sophomore year

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Music as Fine Art

• Emergence of aesthetic philosophy

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Aesthetic

• Opposite of anaesthetic, or non-feeling
• Aesthetic not a term in the human vocabulary
  until Baumgarten in the mid 1700s.

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Music as Fine Art

• Fine Arts music, painting, architecture,
  sculpture, poetry
• Ars gratia artis art for arts sake
• Focus on pure Form of the musical Work
• Vitality of Absolute Music
• Increasing marginalization of music in schooling
• More dramatic shift to music as individual
  rather than social

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Question

• Is the Music Education Division at the University
  of Kansas better lodged in the School of
  Education, or the School of Fine Arts?
• Is the Department of Music more appropriately
  lodged in the School of Fine Arts or the College
  of Arts and Sciences?

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Peter Kivy

• No longer is there a convincing rationale for the
  place of music in a liberal arts education

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John Butt

• Conclusion to his study of practical music in
  German elementary schools, 1600-1750
• the more practical music was cultivating an
  agenda of its own, the more music sowed the
  seeds of its ultimate demise as a fundamental
  element of education
• John Butt, Music Education and the Art of
  Performance in the German Baroque (Cambridge, UK
  Cambridge University Press, 1994), 13.

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Other Basic Ideas/Lenses

• Largely modern, but with some obvious historical
  roots

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Music as Trait

• There exists an indwelling proclivity, either
  innate or due to environmental influence, or
  both, responsible for individual musical activity
• It is distributed unequally among the population
• musical talent, aptitude

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Music as Communication or Expression

• Music is fundamentally a mode of human emotional
  communication
• Emotions aroused externally by a musical cause
• Emotivists sad music makes us feel sad
• Cognitivists music moves us
• Reimer absolute expressionism
• Elliott referential expressionism

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Music as Behavior

• No mentalism at all in music
• Music is a rewarding behavior learned by
  successive approximation and reinforcement
• The consequences of music are also its causes

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Music as supernatural

• genesis of music is essentially non human,
  pre-existing in another reality
• by contrast, cognitivists argue that music is
  naturalistic, an invention of human thought

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Contemporary Statement

• a spark of perfection, just a glimpse, remains
  with man (sic) enough so that he may recognize
  his Creator. It comes in different shapes and
  forms. One of those forms is the gift of music.
  Its the only form of art that will exist in
  heaven. God gave it to us so that we can praise
  Him.
• --Eph Ehly, UMKC, as interviewed in Quest for
  Answers, ed. Carole Glenn (Chapel Hill, NC
  Hinshaw, 1991), 125-126.

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Music as Perception

• music is a product of the raw materials of sound
  processed by the ear and brain processing of
  external stimuli

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Now on the SceneMusic as Cognition

• Human intelligence/thought/cognition/knowledge is
  not unitary, but multi-dimensional
• There exists within the human brain a geography
  of cognitive domains and processes specific to
  the various intelligences available to human
  beings
• Music is a unique type of cognitive human activity

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Music as Cognition

• Music viewed as an evolutionary product of human
  thought
• Cognitivists argue that musical sound is the
  consequence or product of non-discursive thought
• Music is cognitively generated, not just
  cognitively processed it can occur mentally in
  the absence of physical sound

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Cognitivists

• music has to do primarily with internal mental
  processes that have evolved over time
• Debate among cognitivists music as auditory
  cheesecake (Pinker) versus music as an
  evolutionary development tied to survival needs
  such language, mating/reproduction (Levitson, et
  al).

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Food for Thought

• Ideas have consequences for the practice of music
  education.
• Major ideas rarely die. They mate, reproduce,
  and become embedded in newer webs of belief.
• How do we know what we know? This central
  epistemological question is an ongoing one for
  music educators.

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Food for Thought

• As a discipline, music education entails hybrid
  phenomena. How music and education relate
  (genus/species, dialectic, etc.) remains a
  primary issue.
• This issue is complicated by no one definition of
  music on which there is widespread agreement.
  Music remains largely an indeterminate concept.

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Music

• For music, despite the saw about its being an
  international language, is many things to many
  people, places, and times.
• --James R. Oestreich, The New York Times, Sunday,
  January 22, 2001, p 30 Arts Leisure (on why the
  1980 edition of Groves decided not to have an
  entry on music).

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Stanley Sadie

• We could find no one person who could have
  written on music and the changing significance
  of the term through the ages.
• --Editor of The New Groves Dictionary of Music
  and Musicians

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Education

• the deliberate, systematic, and sustained
  effort to transmit or evoke knowledge, attitudes,
  values, skills and sensibilities
• --Lawrence A. Cremin

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Education

• Involves configurations of education, e.g.
  family, church, school, community
• Can involve shifting configurations figurations
  over time, and the impact of one pedagogy upon
  another
• The history of education is not simply a history
  of institutional schooling