Qualitative Analysis

1
Qualitative Analysis

• Workshop 5
• ESRC Workshops for Qualitative Research in
  Management

2
Identification of training need

• Current literature places great stress upon the
  methods used to go out and collect or generate
  the data, but there is much less written about
  the actual analytical techniques/ process.
• There is much more training available for
  quantative software packages (eg SPSS) than for
  qualitative software packages).

3
Workshop aim

• To provide an introduction to the process of
  qualitative analysis and to use step by step
  examples to provide an idea of how to the process
  of qualitative analysis actually works.
• To provide an introduction to Computer Aided
  Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) and
  signpost further information sources.

4
Workshop objectives

• By the end of this workshop participants should
• Be familiar with the process of qualitative
  analysis may be conducted.
• Be able to source further information on
  different approaches to analysis
• Understand the basic function of qualitative
  software.
• Be able to source further information on a
  variety of software packages.

5
Workshop outline

• Introducing different approaches to qualitative
  data analysis
• Grounded Theory
• Discourse Analysis
• Computer Aided Qualitative Data Software Analysis
  (CAQDAS).
• Further sources on CAQDAS
• Further information on qualitative data analysis

6
Approaches to qualitative data analysis.

• Approaches to be covered
• Grounded Theory
• Discourse Analysis

7
Grounded theory is.

• Theory which is derived inductively from the data
  which were systematically gathered and analyzed
  throughout the research process (Strauss and
  Corbin 1998).
• Data collection, analysis and theory stand in a
  reciprocal relationship with each other. A
  researcher does not begin with a pre-conceived
  theory in mind, rather the researcher begins with
  an area of study and allows the theory to emerge
  from the data.

8
Grounded theory involves.

• 1. An initial attempt to develop categories
  which illuminate the data.
• 2. Saturation of these categories with many
  appropriate cases in order to develop their
  relevance.
• 3. Developing these categories into more general
  analytical frameworks with relevance outside the
  setting.
• Glaser and Strauss (1967).

9
Glaser/Strauss split

• Glasers (1978, 1998) position assumes an
  objective external reality, a neutral observer
  who discovers data and an objectivist rendering
  of the data. Therefore Glasers position is often
  perceived as close to traditional positivism
  (Charmaz 2000 ).
• Strauss and Corbin argue for unbiased data
  collection, a set of technical procedures and the
  need for verification -therefore they also imply
  an objective external reality.
• However, Strauss and Corbin also move away from
  traditional positivism through the acknowledgment
  that respondents views of reality may conflict
  with their own (See Strauss and Corbin 1998).

10
Glaser and Strauss (and Corbin)

• Both realist in ontology and epistemology
• Both follow the canons of objective reportage and
  engage in silent authorship and usually write
  about their data as distant experts (Charmaz
  1994) thereby contributing to the objectivist
  stance.

11
Skills needed for the grounded theory research
approach

• Important to minimise subjectivity by
• Maintaining an open disposition, a willingness to
  be surprised
• Think comparatively comparing incident to
  incident
• Study multiple viewpoints of the phenomena in
  question
• Researcher should periodically step back and ask
  what is going on here?

12
Phase 1 - Initial attempt to develop categories
which illuminate the data.

• Conceptual ordering / creating basic codes
• Internal aspect- they must be meaningful in
  relation to the data
• External aspect- they must be meaningful in
  relation to other categories
• (Dey 1993 96-97).

13
Phase 1 - Initial attempt to develop categories
which illuminate the data.

• Open coding the analytic process through which
  concepts are identified and their properties and
  dimensions discovered in the data (Strauss and
  Corbin 1998).
• Microanalysis of the data
• Progressive refocusing in light of the data

14
Phase 1 - Initial attempt to develop categories
which illuminate the data.

• Categories
• 1. Perceptions of management
• 2. Customer Aggression
• Put about how customer aggression is defined as
  anything frontliner or researcher perceives as
  such. Put about problems of definition and how
  this workshop does not aim to deal with this.

15
Phase 2- Saturation of categories with many
appropriate cases and further development of
categories

• Axial Coding further analysis and linking of the
  codes
• Creating subcategories in categories
• Linking categories according to properties and
  dimensions.

16
Axial coding creating subcategories

• Perceptions of management subcategories
• Perceived in a positive way.
• Perceived in a negative way
• Perceived as neither positive or negative.

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(No Transcript)
18
Axial coding creating subcategories.

• Customer Aggression Subcategories
• Verbal aggression
• Physical aggression
• Substance abuse and customer aggression
• Lack of understanding and acknowledgement of
  customer aggression

19
Phase 3 - Developing categories into general
analytical frameworks with relevance outside the
setting.

• Selective coding the process of integrating and
  refining categories.
• Major categories are finally integrated to form
  a larger theoretical scheme.

20
Phase 3 - Developing categories into general
analytical frameworks with relevance outside the
setting.

• In certain public sector workplaces, which deal
  with face to face interaction with potentially
  violent customers, the physical presence of
  management is desired by frontliners.

21
Phase 3 Developing categories into general
analytical frameworks with relevance outside the
setting

• use of literature in this final stage of analysis
  in order to confirm findings and to illustrate
  where the research differs from the literature.

22
Criticisms of grounded theory

• Failure to acknowledge theories which guide work
  at an earlier stage.
• Rejoinder Recognition of impossibility of
  tabular rasa. However, Strauss and Corbin
  acknowledge that every piece of research
  (quantitative or qualitative) has an element of
  subjectivity. Instead they stress the importance
  of taking appropriate measures to minimize the
  subjectivity in their analyses

23
Criticisms of grounded theory

• Concentrating on the generation of theories at
  the expense of their quality and usefulness. A
  major problem of grounded theory is that if the
  researcher has no knowledge of the literature,
  they risk re-inventing the wheel.
• Rejoinder Strauss and Corbin (1998) argue that
  these procedures are supposed to be followed with
  creativity, flexibility and intelligence. They
  explain that it is the construction of new
  insights and understanding which are significant
  and useful that is at the heart of this method.

24
Criticisms of grounded theory

• Postmodernists and poststructuralists dispute
  obvious and subtle positivistic premises assumed
  by grounded theorys major proponents and within
  the logic of the method itself
• Response Creation of constructivist grounded
  theory which stresses emergent, constructivist
  elements such as an interpretive understandings
  of individuals meanings

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Further sources on Grounded Theory

• Charmaz, K., (1994) Grounded Theory Objectivist
  and Constructivist Methods in Denzin, N. and
  Lincoln, Y. (ed.) Handbook of Qualitative
  Research, Thousand Oaks, CA Sage.
• Glaser, B. and Straus, A. L. (1967) The Discovery
  of Grounded Theory Strategies for Qualitative
  Research, Chicago Aldine
• Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1998) Basics of
  Qualitative Research Techniques and Procedures
  for Developing Grounded Theory, Thousand Oaks
  Sage Publications.

26
Workshop outline

• Introducing different approaches to qualitative
  data analysis
• Grounded Theory
• Discourse Analysis
• Computer Aided Qualitative Data Software Analysis
  (CAQDAS).
• Further sources on CAQDAS
• Further information on qualitative data analysis

27
Discourse analysis

• Discourse analysis focuses on language as a
  social practice in its own right and is concerned
  with how individuals use language in specific
  social contexts
• Enables researcher to gain an understanding of
  how individuals use language to construct
  themselves and the world around them
• Enables researcher to understand why individuals
  use language to construct themselves and the
  world around them
• Enables researcher to understand the ideological
  effects of individuals constructions.

28
Discourse analysis

• Huge variation in types of discourse analysis
• the only thing that commentators are agreed on
  in this area is that terminological confusions
  abound
• (Potter and Wetherall 19876)
• In approaches such as ethnomethodolgy and
  conversation analysis discourse is concerned
  with the more linguistic concerns of the
  structure of talk and the processes used by
  speakers to construct their worlds (Schwandt
  2001).
• Foucauldian approaches consider discourses as
  systems of power/knowledge which are socially and
  culturally located and which construct subjects
  and their worlds (Gubrium and Holstein 2000).

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Levels of discourse

• Analysis at the micro, context specific level of
  discourse and the more macro level of Discourse.
• Analysis of discourse as reflecting meaning or
  analysis of discourse as constructing meaning.
• (Alvesson and Karreman 2002).

30
Dimensions in discourse studies. Taken from
Alvesson and Karreman (2002)
31
Critical discourse analysis

• Language plays an active, constructive role.
• Unit of analysis is language and not the
  individual.
• Anti-essentialist -individuals draw on
  alternative versions of reality according to the
  situation.
• (Marshall 1994).

32
Doing discourse analysis

• Identification of interpretive repertoires
• Identification of social constructions which have
  regulatory effects.
• Consistency in discourse is not seen to
  illustrate some underlying reality, but is used
  to signpost a particular repertoire.

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Doing discourse analysis

• Discourse can be confirmed by
• Referring to instances of its use in other texts
• Illustrating its dominance in any specific
  socio-cultural context.

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Doing discourse analysis

• Analysis will focus on
• Force
• Context
• Hegemonic Struggle

35
Doing discourse analysis

• Force of the text
• Understanding what it is trying to achieve
• Relationship between repertoires

36
Doing discourse analysis

• Importance of context of text production.
• Interview transcripts usually involve an
  indication of previous comment or question.

37
Doing discourse analysis

• Example of context of extract
• Request from the researcher for a story about a
  difficult customer.
• Neo-liberalist trend of service/customer
  orientation in the public sector.

38
Doing discourse analysis

• Analysis of hegemony- extent to which a
  proposition is challenged or anticipated to be
  challenged.
• Hegemonic struggle when different ideologies
  compete for dominance.

39
Criticisms of discourse analysis

• Accusation of moral nilhism unethical acts are
  dismissed as having no material reality
• Countered by argument that discourse analysis
  does not deny material reality, but focuses on
  the way our understandings of such practices are
  constructed through discourse.

40
Criticisms of discourse analysis

• Voicing concerns for groups who do not consider
  themselves to be oppressed or disadvantaged.
• Subversion of oppressive discourses may lead to
  alternative suppressive discourses for other
  social groups.
• Difficulty of identifying interpretative
  repertoires when research is not independent of
  linguistic resources needed to construct
  discourse.

41
Further sources on Discourse Analysis

• Discourse Analysis
• Dick, P., (2004) Discourse Analysis, in Cassell,
  G., and Symon, G., (eds) Essential Guide to
  Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research,
  London Sage
• Alvesson, M., and Karreman, D., (2002) Varities
  of Discourse On the study of organizations
  through discourse analysis, 53(9) 1125-1149
• Fairclough, N., (2003) Analysing Discourse,
  Textual analysis for social research, New York
  Routledge

42
Workshop outline

• Introducing different approaches to qualitative
  data analysis
• Grounded Theory
• Discourse Analysis
• Computer Aided Qualitative Data Software Analysis
  (CAQDAS).
• Further sources on CAQDAS
• Further information on qualitative data analysis

43
CAQDAS Data organisation

• An indispensable tool for storage retrieval and
  manipulation of the text (Kelle 1995).
• Allows the researcher to sort the data into
  easily accessible categories to enable quick
  retrieval of data
• Comparison of segments
• Refinement and development of codes
• Examples include NVivo, Atlas, ethnograph,
  hypersoft and code-a-text

44
What does CAQDAS actually do?

• Aids mechanical data management techniques such
  as
• Cutting and pasting into codes
• Creating subcategories
• Notes in the margin

45
Additional uses of CAQDAS

• Atlas also allows the storage of audio
  recordings.
• Code-a-text allows the researcher to work with
  sound, video and transcript concurrently.
• Atlas also allows pictures to be scanned in and
  used as data, allowing handwritten notes to be
  scanned in this way.

46
Additional uses of CAQDAS

• Hypersoft strives to avoid decontexualisation of
  data through hyperlinks.
• Use of CD ROM to record research which could
  provide the opportunity for multiple readings of
  the text.

47
Debates surrounding CAQDAS

• Assertion that software packages seem more suited
  for objectivist grounded theory than more social
  constructivist approaches (Charmaz 2000).
• Accusations of overemphasis on coding and promote
  a superficial view of qualitative research
  (Coffrey et al 1996).
• Use of computer fragments data

48
Debates surrounding CAQDAS

• The central analytic task in qualitative research
  understanding the meaning of text cannot be
  computerised. Using CAQDAS is no substitute for
  thinking hard about the meaning of data. (Seale
  2000).
• Only the more mechanical task of data management
  can be aided by a computer.
• Use of software package reflects choices of the
  researcher.

49
In summary

• Choose software to fit research not research to
  fit software!!
• Overall CAQDAS tends to be used as tool for
  intelligent management of research data.

50
Conclusion

• Qualitative enquiry depends, at every stage, on
  the skills training, insights, and capabilities
  of the inquirer. Qualitative analysis ultimately
  depends on the analytical intellect and style of
  the analyst (Patton 2004 436).

51
Further reading on CAQDAS

• Fielding, N. and Lee, R. (eds) Using Computers
  in Qualitative Research, Sage Newbury Park
• Kelle, U., (1995) Computer- Aided Qualitative
  Data Analysis Theory, Methods and Practice.
  Sage London.
• Richards L. and Richards, T., Using Computers in
  Qualitative Analysis, in N. Denzin, and Y.
  Lincoln (eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research,
  Thousand Oaks. Sage 445-62.
• Kelle, U. (1995) Computer-Aided Qualitative Data
  Analysis Theory, Methods and Practice Sage
  London.

52
Useful websites

• AnSWR (www.cdc.gov/hiv/software/answr.htm)
• Atlas (www.atlasti.de/)
• Code-a-text (www.code-a-text.co.uk)
• CDC EZ-Text (www.cdc.gov/hiv/software/ez-text.htm)
  
• Decision Explorer (devoted to conceptual mapping)
  (www.banxia.co.uk/banxia).
• Ethnograph (http//www.qualisresearch.com )
• HyperResearch (www.researchware.com)
• QCA (Qualitative Comparative Analysis)
  (www.nwu.edu/IPR/publiations/qca.html)
• QSR NVivo/Nudist (www.qsrinternational.com

53
Further sources on data analysis

• General analysis references
• Bloor, M. (1978) On the analysis of observational
  data a discussion of the worth and uses of
  observational techniques andrespondent
  validation, Sociology, 12, pp. 542-55
• Becker, H.S., (1998) Tricks of the trade How to
  think about your research while youre doing it.
  Chicargo University of Chicargo Press.
• Bulmer, M. (1979) Concepts in the analysis of
  qualitative data. Sociological Review, 27,
  651-677
• Dey, I (1993) Qualitative data analysis a user
  friendly guide for social scientists, London
  Routledge.
• Miles, M. B. and Huberman, A. M. (1984)
  Qualitative Data Analysis A Sourcebook of New
  Methods, Beverly Hills, CA Sage.

54
Further sources on data analysis

• General analysis references
• Miles, M.B. (1979) Qualitative data as an
  attractive nuisance The problem of analysis.
  Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 590-601
• Ryan, G., and Bernard, R., Data Management and
  Analysis Methods, in Denzin, N., Lincoln, Y.,
  (2000) Handbook of Qualitative Research,
  Thousand Oaks Sage
• Silverman, D. (2000) Analysing Talk and Text, ,
  in Denzin, N., Lincoln, Y., (eds) Handbook of
  Qualitative Research. London Sage
• Taylor, S.J. Bogdan, R.C. (1984) Introduction
  to qualitative research methods The search for
  meanings (2nd ed). New York John Wiley

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• For further information on similar other
  workshops in qualitative analysis please see our
  web site
• www.shef.ac.uk/bgpinqmr/
• There is a space on our website for feedback on
  the training modules. Please use it to record any
  feedback including modifications/ adaptations
  made to the original modules.

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References

• Denzin, N. and Lincoln, Y. (ed.) (2000) Handbook
  of Qualitative Research, Thousand Oaks, CA Sage
• Foucault, M. (1971) Orders of Discourse, Social
  Science Information, 10 7-30.
• Harrow, J. and Shaw, M. (1992) The manager faces
  the consumer, in L. Wilcocks and J. Harrow
  (eds.), Rediscovering Public Services Management,
  Berkshire McGraw-Hill.
• Patton, M. (2002) Qualitative Research and
  Evaluation Methods, London Sage
• Potter, J. (1992) Constructing Realism- 7 Moves
  (Plus or minus a couple), Theory and Psychology,
  2, 2 167-173.

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• Potter, J., and Wetherell (1987) Discourse and
  Social Psychology Beyond Attitudes and
  Behaviour, London Sage.
• Schwandt, T. (2001) Dictionary of Qualitative
  Inquiry, Thousand Oaks Sage
• Wilcocks, L. and Harrow, J. (1992) Rediscovering
  Public Services Management, Berkshire
  McGraw-Hill
• Stubbs, M., (1983) Discourse Analysis. Oxford
  Blackwell
• Tannen, D. (1984) Coherence in Spoken and Written
  Discourse. Norwood Ablex