Gender and Gender Inequality (3/24)

1
Gender and Gender Inequality (3/24)

• 1.To what degree is the U.S. characterized by
  institutional sexism, today? (Kanter)
• 2. Affirmative action (begin)

2
How much gender inequality is there in the United
States today?

• White males are abut 1/3 of the population
• but they make up
• 83 of the Forbes 400
• 77 of Congress
• 90 of Governors
• 70 of tenured faculty
• Etc.

3
Is the U.S. institutionally sexist today? (review
inequality and opportuntity )

• There is a lot of gender inequality,
• and there are a lot of people who are,
  individually sexist?
• But is the over-all playing field level?
• Or even more than level?
• Are men top dog or underdog?
• Should it be level?
• Can it be level without reducing inequality?

4
Is it Functional or Dysfunctional

• The view of gender inequalities as functional is
  the view that they directly meet social needs or
  are the necessary result of other structures
  (meritocracy family roles) that do so.
• There are three main functional arguments
  biological, structural-functional and
  libertarian.
• They dominated American sociology up to 1970
• They are treated with respect in the text, but
  ultimately rejected.
• Kanter and Reskin regard the gender inequality as
  dysfunctional and analyze its causes and cure

5
What is the income gap in 2000?

• OWN INCOME by SEX
• MALE FEMALE TOTAL
• UNDER 6K 55 136 191
• 28.8 71.2 100.0
• 6K-19,999 178 334 512
• 34.8 65.2 100.0
• 20K-24999 84 116 200
• 42.0 58.0 100.0
• 25K UP 573 342 915
• 62.6 37.4 100.0
• Missing 339 660 999
• TOTAL 890 928 1818

Women constitute 2/3 of those making less than
20,000 men constitute 2/3 of those making more
than 25,000
6
Or looked at differently
SEX by OWN INCOME UNDER 6K 6K-19,999
20K-24999 25K UP Missing TOTAL MALE 55 178
84 573 339 890 6.2 20.0 9.4 64.4
100.0 FEMALE 136 334 116
342 660 928 14.7 36.0 12.5 36.9
100.0 TOTAL 191 512 200
915 999 1818 10.5 28.2 11.0 50.3

• Women were three times more likely to make low
  incomes (15 v. 6) and half as likely to make
  high incomes (37 v. 64) as men were

7
Skills SAT scores

• If SAT scores alone were used to allocate
  scholarships and admittances to elite schools,
  men would get most of them.
• The text argues that part of the gap is bias in
  the questions, and the rest is bias in
  interpreting the test as a test of ability.

8
Does the inequality of result reflect equality of
opportunity?

• Are men really that much smarter?
• Are they smarter at all?
• 3 main arguments that there should not be social
  policies to reduce the inequality of outcomes
• Sociobiological functionalism It reflects the
  different biological abilities of men and women
• Sociological functionalism It reflects the
  functional imperatives of the family.
• Libertarian functionalism It reflects the rights
  of people who have resources to do what they want
  with them.

9
Sociobiological functionalism

• E.g. J. Q. Wilson
• Treated with great respect in text
• There are sex-linked differences in capacities
  which may influence gender-capabilities.
• However, there are also large gender-role
  differences, creating an unequal playing field
• E.g. Cross-cultural evidence
• There is sufficient cultural variation to show
  that biological constraints are not the source
• Implications of treating inequality as
  biological
• If the inequality is biological it is consistent
  with organic solidarity it is not remediable
  and where there is no problem, there does not
  have to be a solution.

10
Sociological functionalism

• E.g. T. Parsons different outcomes represent
  different personalities, that reflect the
  functional needs of families.
• Popular forms feminism causes family breakdown
• Problems
• There are functional alternatives.
• Worst of both worlds
• Organic solidarity requires that people get an
  equal chance.
• Ascriptive differences in life chances are
  inconsistent with organic solidarity.

11
Libertarian functionalism

• Even if the unequal outcome reflects neither
  biological abilities nor functional needs of the
  family, it might be that public policies cannot
  or should not address it.
• Murrays argument to the ineffectiveness of laws
  was mainly directed against affirmaqtive action.
• Those people with wealth and power might be best
  allowed to dispose of it as they please.
• Affirmative action and equivalent policies might
  create backlash.
• But, race issues are similar in the army and navy.

12
Systemic representation of functional theories of
gender inequality

• Functionalists argue that the inequality is bound
  up with crucial social functions.

Preservation of i.e. family Social functions
economy free choice
Gender inequality
-
Any erosion of the central social institutions
leads to movements to return to arrangements
generating gender inequality.
13
Conflict theory of Sexism

• Against the various functional theories of
  inequality, different kinds of conflict theory
  argue that male privilege is dysfunctional.
• Privileging the homemaker/breadwinner family,
  when the economy and the social structure permits
  that for very few, is dysfunctional and unfair.

14
Systemic representation of conflict theories
about gender inequality

• Conflict theorists argue that the inequality is a
  self-reinforcing structure of privilege.

Reproduction and reinforcement of gender
inequality
Dysfunctional consequences
Gender inequality
_

_
Conflict theorists argue that the unfair and
dysfunctional consequences of sexism ultimately
lead to movements to reverse gender inequality.
15
Example of an Analysis of Institutional Sexism

• Kanter Men and Women of the Corporation (1972)
  ( p. 94 146)
• Women in the management training program of a
  company she called Indsco, did poorly.
• There was little overt sexism or discrimination
  in promotion or evaluation,
• but Kanter argues that a pervasive,
  institutionalized structure that disadvantaged
  women.
• Recall main finding There is an informal
  structure that is the problem. It is what needs
  to be changed.

16
Tokenism

• Women were a numerical minority.
• A popular usage of token refers to the motives
  for the hire I.e. to look as though one is
  diverse
• This is not Kanters usage, though a diversity
  hire is often also a token in her sense, namely
• A numerical minority entering an institutional
  arena that had long been dominated by men
• Feagin referred to this as a critical mass
• Kanter argued this leads to hyper-visibility,
  lack of role models and lack of support that
  produce non-level playing fields.

17
Hyper-visibility of tokens

• 1st effect of tokenism everything that the women
  did (both on and off business hours) was more
  visible and gossiped about than the actions of
  the men.
• Operating in a goldfish bowl is intrinsically
  difficult. E.g.s
• And this is doubly true if there are pressures to
  be one of the guys.

18
Double-binds on female tokens

• Managerial candidates had to obtain high ratings
  both from their peers and from senior executives.
• Sustaining a high level of competition and of
  camaraderie was usually done by sexual jokes and
  tales of sexual exploits.
• Interrupting it with Do you mind if I tell this
  story? produced double-binds
• Yes means she is a wet blanket and a prude.
• No means she is a tart or a whore.

19
Feedbacks involving numbers
Hyper-visibility and lack of models or supports


Tokenism (i.e. small numbers of women
Lack of success by the tokens

Small numbers produces small numbers. A groups
success produces more success a groups failure
produces more failure.
20
Existing roles

• The existing roles for women, adopted from family
  roles, were not associated with managerial
  effectiveness. They were
• Mother, nurturer, supplies support.
• Kid sister, pet, needs protection.
• Maiden aunt, mannish iron maiden, dyke.
• Seductress, hot, loose.
• While it is possible to change existing roles, it
  is like creating a new language at the same time
  one is communicating in it.

21
Cooptation and protégés

• Senior management adopted protégés that like
  themselves, with whom they identified.
• Often in locker-room contacts,
• Avoiding jealousy at home,
• and solving trust issues.
• Cronyism or old boy networks.
• For these reasons, women had more difficulty
  becoming a protégé.

22
Feedbacks involving roles and stereotyping

Women perceived in terms of family roles

Women largely absent from managerial positions
Lack of evaluation of managerial competence

Lack of role models produces stereotyping and
suspicion that is a self-fulfilling prophecy that
produces lack of role models.
23
Effects on the motivation of the women

• The women often ended up becoming less motivated
  to individual advancement.
• Kanter argues that this was institutionally
  created any group which experiences
• A glass ceiling,
• Less autonomy, or
• more menial tasks
• Aims tend to shift to the achievable.

24
Feedbacks involving motivation and a glass
ceiling
Women shift priorities to friendships and family
roles


Women given menial and unrewarding positions
Lack of female success in executive positions

Lack of responsibility, lack of autonomy, or low
expectations of success all cause people to shift
their motivations to shperes where they expect
higher reward.
25
The result of institutional sexism

• It was not impossible for women to succeed at
  Indsco, but what Kanter aimed to explain was the
  lower rate.
• The problem was not individual sexism and/or
  discrimination, but the fact that
• the existing culture and social structure was
  unfriendly, unsupportive, and more difficult for
  the women.
• Reasons for differences or effectiveness of
  policies in changing such cultures or social
  structures in firms are researchable.

26
Policy Implications

• On the one hand, since virtually none of the
  disadvantage of women was the result of
  individual discrimination, harassment, etc. it
  would not be affected by such laws.
• On the other hand, neither the numerical minority
  status of women, nor the institutional
  arrangements were beyond remedy.
• Even when the source of the problem is outside
  (e.g. family) it can be buffered.
• A similar structure of racial disadvantage and
  tokenism existed in the army, Sun Oil, etc.
• We shall pursue the specific issues of
  meritocracy next class

27
Affirmative Action

• The sources of disadvantage that involve numbers
  or role models would be changed by changing the
  numbers or producing the role models.
• Major political conflicts today center on
  affirmative action, which is often perceived as a
  system of gender/racial preference.
• There is both widespread support for leveling the
  playing field,
• and widespread opposition to quotas or
  preferences