Chapter 9 Understanding the Importance of Perception in Negotiation

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Chapter 9Understanding the Importance of
Perception in Negotiation
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Perception

• The process of selecting, organizing, and
  interpreting stimuli.

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Everyone Does Not See the Same

• Personality affects perception.
• Culture affects perception.
• Attitude affects perception.
• Context affects perception.

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• We perceive everything and everyone everyday.
• Person perception is the most complex.
• Perception affects all that we do.

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• We create cognitive structures to organize what
  we perceive.
• The structure may be thought of as a file
  cabinet.
• Extroverts use fixed cabinets.
• Introverts use abstract cabinets.

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Sensors and Intuitors Perceive Differently

• Sensors seek validity in things that can be
  verified by physical senses.
• Intuitors seek the unusual and creative and see
  validity in things consistent conceptually.
• Sensors organize stimuli according to experience.
• Intuitors organize according to conceptual
  relationships.

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We Attribute Psychological Processes to Others

• We view people as causal agents.
• We infer intentions and attitudes of others.
• We expect experience to repeat.
• We make judgments about the purpose of others
  behavior.
• We assess blame and culpability.
• We assess validity.

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• We tend to assume that others are like us.
• We tend to think others perceive as we do.
• We tend to think others think like we do.

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Attribution Theory

• We evaluate validity of messages to acquire valid
  attitudes.
• We attribute cause for communication.
• Cause may be attributed to external or internal
  sources.

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• In assessing or attributing cause, we assess
  three things
• Consistency
• Consensus
• Distinctiveness

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• Consistencywhether the behavior or communication
  is consistent with prior experience with THAT
  individual in similar situations.
• Consensuswhether the behavior agrees with that
  of OTHERS in similar circumstances.
• Distinctivenesswhether the behavior is different
  from prior experience generally with THAT
  individual.

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Decision Tree

• Consistent? No. Attribute to external causes.
• Consistent? Yes. Check Consensus.
• Consensus? Yes. Attribute to external causes.
• Consensus? No. Check Distinctiveness.
• Distinctive? Yes. Attribute to particular
  external causes and internal causes.
• Distinctive? No. Attribute to internal causes.

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External/Internal Causes

• We afford greater validity to behavior attributed
  to external causes.
• We do not hold others responsible when we
  attribute their behavior to external causes.
• We DO hold others responsible when we attribute
  their behavior to internal causes.
• Our biases and prejudices are activated in our
  attribution process.

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Fundamental Error

• The fundamental attributional error made by all
  is to tend toward attributing behavior to
  internal causes.
• The error accounts in part for our tendency not
  to believe others.
• We do not make that error in assessing our own
  behavior. We have a self-serving bias.

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Attribution in Negotiation

• This unconscious process impacts negotiation in
  at least three ways
• It influences whether or not we see a conflict.
• It influences our choice of conflict strategy.
• It influences our assessment of potential
  outcomes.

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Chapter 10Effects of Power in Negotiation
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Power in Negotiation

• Personal power is the most critical power.
• Personal power comes from knowing oneself.

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Types of Power

• Legitimacyreal, perceived, or imaginary
• Positiona form of legitimate power
• Expertisereal or perceived
• Rewardreal or imaginary
• Coercivereal or imaginary
• Referentthe power of making others want to be
  like you.
• Situation
• Identificationcommonalities that draw people
  together
• Popularity or the Power of Needs
• Persistence
• Patience

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Real Versus Perceived Power

• Most powers must be permitted or enabled.
• Real coercive power is an exception.
• If someone can really hurt you, negotiation is
  risky.

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Using Power

• Power used aggressively or to pressure,
  intimidate, or manipulate is to apply power-over
  tactics.
• Power given to or shared with others is to apply
  power-to tactics.
• Power-over tactics are divisive or destructive.
• Power-to tactics are constructive.

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Power-To and -Over Examples

• Reasoningpower-to
• Tradingpower-to
• Friendlinesspower-to
• Feigned friendlinesspower-over
• Drawing coalitionspower-to or power-over
• Going to high authoritypower-over
• Giving sanctionspower-over

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• Sometimes a person who perceives him/herself as
  powerless will employ power-over tactics.
• A powerless person has nothing to lose and is
  unpredictable.

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Psychological Games

• Psychological maneuvers and stratagems are
  intentional patterns of behavior designed to
  manipulate others.
• Maneuvers are brief.
• Strategems are prolonged.

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• Con games seek immediate tangible results.
• Head games seek emotional effects intended for
  ultimate tangible gain.
• Remember that most power does not exist unless
  you let it!

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Reactance Theory

• Reverse psychology is the common name for
  pretending to withhold something on the
  assumption that we all want what we cant have.
• It is risky, but sometimes effective.

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Bluffing

• Lying?
• A psychological Game at best.
• If you bluff, dont get caught!

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• Let us never negotiate out of fear, but let us
  never fear to negotiate.
• John F. Kennedy