In writing we can use punctuation marks to emphasize clarify what we mean.
Meanwhile in speaking we can make a pause stop change our tone of voice
Thats why in writing we make use of Punctuation marks as signals to our readers.
3 1. The full stop.
The full stop is used
a. at the end of a complete statement (or utterance) which is neither an exclamation nor a question.
e.g. He saw a UFO among the trees.
He asked me if I had seen it.
Yes. A UFO.
4 1. The full stop.
b. After abbreviations.
B.A. ( Bachelor of Arts ).
e.g. ( exempli gratia for example ).
N.B. ( Nota bene note well ).
Note It is often the practice to omit the full stop if the last letter of the abbreviated word is given
e.g. Mr
Dr
5 1. The full stop.
The full stop is the most important of the punctuation marks.
Its omission when its use is undeniably required
will confuse the reader
ideas will be mixed up and
the meaning intended by the writer will not be probably communicated to the reader.
6 2. The comma.
A comma is a punctuation mark that indicates a pause is needed in a sentence.
It separates the structural elements of sentences into manageable segments.
Commas are both an aid to sense and to ease of reading.
They are sometimes used in long sentences to break up words into sections where the sense allows a pause to be taken. It is better to underuse them than to overuse them.
7 2. The comma.
Commas are frequently overused. It is as well always consider the effect on the sense and construction of a sentence that their inclusion or omission would have. Consider the following
e.g. I saw my friend John.
I saw my friend John.
8 2. The comma.
The first sentence implies that I have several friends but the one that I saw was Tom. The omission of the comma allows Tom to define which friend it was that I saw.
The second sentence may imply that I have only one friend and that his name happens to be Tom. The inclusion of the comma allows the word Tom merely to qualify the word friend. It might also mean that the speaker is addressing Tom when he or she says I saw my friend.
9 2. The comma.
Conventional uses of the comma.
To separate two descriptions set side by side of the same object or person
The second of the two descriptions adds to the meaning of the first and is parallel to it. (Technically the second statement is said to be in apposition to the first.)
e.g. Mr Brown the grocer sells butter.
10 Conventional uses of the comma.
2. To separate the items or elements in a list.
e.g. At the grocers I bought some eggs bacon sugar tea and biscuits.
Note Some writers would not insert the comma before the final and but others would argue that because it separates tea from biscuits as elements in a list it should be there. Look however at the final coma in the following list where it is essential
For breakfast I ate some cereals toast and eggs and bacon.
The final pair of items here (eggs and bacon) may be seen as a single element to have omitted the comma after toast would have obscured the sense by running toast and eggs and bacon together.
11 Conventional uses of the comma.
3. To mark off the name or title of a person being addressed.
e.g.
Mr Smith what is the trouble
Id much rather James you told me the truth.
Doctor I have had a pain in my back for quite a time.
12 Conventional uses of the comma.
4. Following introductory words which introduce direct speech or a direct question.
e.g. He said I know that I should not have said that.
The policeman asked why did you hesitate
13 Conventional uses of the comma.
5. To separate short clauses which list actions events and so on.
e.g. The man rose left the room slammed the door and made his way into the street.
14 Conventional uses of the comma.
6. To indicate a statement interpolated within a sentence. Commas here effectively bracket off the interpolation.
e.g. It was obvious all things considered that he had done the wrong thing.
15 Conventional uses of the comma.
7. To separate or mark off a phrase which stands apart from the rest of a sentence.
e.g. The decision taken there was no going back.
16 Conventional uses of the comma.
8. To indicate where the words have been deliberately omitted but need to be understood.
e.g. The professor could pursue his own ideas I mine.
17 Conventional uses of the comma.
9. To mark off a series of statements in the same sentence.
e.g. He knew what he had to do where he had to go and when he should take the next step.
18 Conventional uses of the comma.
10. To mark off a statement which qualifies the meaning of a word. (The omission of the comma here would alter the sense by changing the qualification into a clear definition.)
e.g. He stumbled into the house which was his home.
(This implies that there was only one house and this house happened to be his home.)
Use commas wherever you think they are are necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.
19 Conventional uses of the comma.
The comma in a compound sentence is placed before the coordinating conjunction.
Andy built a sand castle and Joe played with his dog.
S V conj. Andy built a sand castle and Joe played with his dog. S V 20 Conventional use of the comma
When a dependent clause is located after an independent clause
DO NOT place a comma between the two.
S.Agustín is a good team but Natación is better. S V DCM S V I became very sick when the S V DCM roller coaster zoomed upside down. S V 21 3. The semicolon.
The semicolon marks off one part of sentence from another much more sharply than a comma.
It is particularly useful to divide a long sentence into self-contained sections. The semicolon is used
22 3. The semicolon.
To separate a series of complete statements which nevertheless belong to a longer whole statement.
e.g. He was ill he now knew it he would go to the doctors.
Note
The semicolons here give to the three short statements a dramatic note which would not be present if the first were replaced by a comma and the second by a conjunction such as and indeed to change the statement in this way would weaken it so much that it would become almost meaningless.
23 3. The semicolon.
2. To introduce a sharp contrast between complete statements which are closely related.
e.g. He knew what he should do yet he could not do it.
He trusted the doctor he distrusted himself.
24 3. The semicolon.
Note
The semicolon is particularly useful to make this kind of contrast before liking words such as
therefore
otherwise
still
yet
for
nevertheless.
25 3. The semicolon.
3. To break up a long sentence which would otherwise be overwhelmed by a confusion of commas.
e.g. He would do it if he could do for after all he had the time.
26 The Colon
The colon is used
To introduce a list which follows immediately.
e.g. He studied the use of the following punctuation marks full stops semicolons colons question marks etc.
(ii) To introduce examples which illustrate or expand an idea and which follow immediately.
e.g. He counted his treasures gold silver diamonds and books.
27 The Colon
(iii) To introduce a quotation which follows immediately.
e.g. Hamlet once contemplated his own death To be or not to be...
(iv) To introduce an explanation which follows immediately.
e.g. This is what to do pour the yellow liquid into the green one and then get out - fast.
28 The Colon
(v) To introduce a speech which follows immediately.
e.g. He rose to his feet cleared his throat and began Unaccustomed as I am to public speaking I should like to say ...
(vi) To divide two sharply contrasting statements.
Note A semicolon sometimes has this function too.
Speech is silver silence is golden.
The river ran downhill he made his way slowly up the path.
29 4. The colon.
The colon is used
(i) To introduce a list which follows immediately.
e.g. He studied the use of the following punctuation marks full stops semicolons colons question marks etc.
(ii) To introduce examples which illustrate or expand an idea and which follow immediately.
e.g. He counted his treasures gold silver diamonds and books.
30 4. The colon.
(iii) To introduce a quotation which follows immediately.
e.g. Hamlet once contemplated his own death To be or not to be...
(iv) To introduce an explanation which follows immediately.
e.g. This is what to do pour the yellow liquid into the green one and then get out - fast.
31 4. The colon.
(v) To introduce a speech which follows immediately.
e.g. He rose to his feet cleared his throat and began Unaccustomed as I am to public speaking I should like to say ...
(vi) To divide two sharply contrasting statements.
Note A semicolon sometimes has this function too.
Speech is silver silence is golden.
The river ran downhill he made his way slowly up the path.
32 5. The question mark.
The question mark had its origin in an awareness not of grammar but of rhetoric
It indicated where the voice was to turn upward to indicate that a question was being asked.
The full stop which forms part of this punctuation mark shows that a statement ( in this case a question) has come to an end.
33 5. The question mark.
The question mark is used
To mark the end of a direct question.
e.g. Where did you go.
Note It is not used in an indirect question
e.g. He asked where you went.
(ii) To show that statements within a given context are to be taken as direct questions.
e.g. Question marks are not used in indirect questions
No they are not.
He asked where you went You may well be surprised.
34 6. The exclamation mark.
The exclamation marks like the question mark is mainly a rhetorical sign
It shows where a statement is used as an interjection or carries very strong emotion.
The full stop which forms part of this punctuation mark shows that a statement ( in this case an exclamation ) has come to an end.
35 6. The exclamation mark.
e.g. Good Gracious ! You must certainly not go there !
Oh dear ! I thought that you might say that.
After this last sentence an exclamation is also possible but if it is added it will inject strong emotion into the utterance.
This is one of the occasions in the use of punctuation where a sign does not merely follow the sense and structure but can determine meaning.
The context will usually make it clear when the emotion in a statement is strong enough to warrant the use of an exclamation mark.
36 7. The apostrophe.
The apostrophe is one of the most interesting punctuation marks in English but it is very often misused.
Misunderstandings abound and it is not uncommon to find on notices displayed in shops simple plurals of nouns that are wrongly given an apostrophe -s
e.g. Sign is mens hairdressers No boys today.
37 7. The apostrophe.
The apostrophe is used
(i) To denote the possessive form of the noun.
All nouns singular and plural take an apostrophe -s to show the possessive case.
e.g. The boys book.
The mens hats.
38 7. The apostrophe.
There are two main groups of exceptions which merely take an apostrophe without the final -s
e.g. (a) Plural nouns which already end in -s
The boys book.
(b) Singular nouns that already contain so many s sounds (sibilants) that the addition of a further -s would be ugly.
39 7. The apostrophe.
(ii) To mark the omission of a letter or group of letters in a word.
e.g. dont ( do not ). Shant (Shall not).
(iii) To form the plurals of letter figure and contractions consisting of initial letters.
e.g. Dot your is and cross your ts.
There are three 4s in twelve.
40 7. The apostrophe.
The use of the apostrophe in such cases is often confusing.
It is now the convention to omit the use of the apostrophe here but to italicise single letters before adding the final -s es gs but 4s the 1930s M.P.s and so on.
(iv) Current practice omits the apostrophe in the following cases in spite of what has been said above
41 7. The apostrophe Omission
Certain words where the initial letters are omitted
e.g. bus ( for omnibus ) phone (telephone) car (autocar).
42 7. The apostrophe Omission
Some place names
e.g. Lands End but Golders Green St James Park but St Helens.
Some well-known proper nouns
e.g. Marks and Spencers Woolsworths ...
43 7. Parentheses (Brackets and the double dash).
Most frequently brackets are used to mark off within a sentencea word comment explanation or statement without which the sentence would otherwise be grammatically complete.
It should be possible to take out the brackets and what they contain and then read the sentences without feeling that it is incomplete.
44 7. Parentheses (Brackets and the double dash).
Sometimes instead of brackets two dashes are used what is placed between the dashes will however remain an interpolation.
If there is a distinction to be made between the use of brackets and the use of dashes it is probably that dashes mark off the interpolation less sharply from the rest of the sentence than brackets.
45 7. Parentheses (Brackets and the double dash).
Compare for example the following
He managed (such was his skill) to build his own house.
He managed -such was his skill- to build his own house.
He had enough money ( he was rich ) to buy the car.
He had enough money - he was rich - to buy the car.
46 7. Parentheses (Brackets and the double dash).
Brackets are also used to add information to amplify a comment without interrupting its general flow.
e.g. They were all there ( John Mary Tom and Sarah ) and the party was complete.
(iii) Brackets are used too to provide a comment or a gloss on a statement what is contained within the brackets should be taken as an aside when they are used in this way. It is often effective to use brackets like this to convey humour satire or irony.
She thought she was beautiful. (It was a pity about her squint.)
He said he needed five pounds. (Thats what he said last time.)
47 7. Parentheses (Brackets and the double dash).
Square brackets are used to indicate comments corrections explanations or other comments not in the original text but added later by the writer or by an editor.
e.g. The poem was written in 1972 although it referred to events which took place two years before. Editors note see the poets Autobiography p.10.
48 8. The dash.
It is not acceptable to use dashes in a slovenly manner to avoid having to decide whether a full stop is required or not. They are most effectively used to achieve a deliberately specific effect.
(i) To indicate a change in the direction of a comment
e.g. She was wearing a top hat -I noticed her immediately.
49 8. The dash.
(ii) To provide an antithetical ( or contrasting) comment within a sentence
e.g. Everything -except the mummy- left the auction room hurriedly.
(iii) To indicate hesitant of faltering speech
e.g. I -er- I should like to -er- emphasise that - that public speakers should -er- should always speak - talk clearly.
50 8. The dash.
(iv) To mark a sudden breaking-off of a statement often for dramatic effect
e.g. If I were you I should get off the camel unless-
(v) To suggest a sudden start to a statement perhaps by way of interruption
e.g. -Oh I dont agree with you for one minute when you say so confidently that there is life after death.-
51 8. The dash.
(vi) To mark off a parenthesis perhaps less emphatically than brackets.
(vii) To pull together items in a list or a number of loosely strung words in order to resume the direction of a sentence
e.g. Kicking in the stomach twisting arms stamping on a fallen opponent gouging eyes -these are not the actions of a gentleman playing rugby.
52 9. Inverted Commas.
What follows is a summary of the practises more usually found in books serious newspapers and magazines.
53 9. Inverted Commas.
(i) Where only one set of quotation marks is needed the single are usually preferred to the double. They are used to mark off the exact words used by a speaker or writer.
e.g. He said I never know how to use quotation marks.
Quirk argued that quotation marks are a nuisance to the writer.
54 9. Inverted Commas.
The placing of the final full stop in these examples is interesting.
In the first the full stop marks both the end of the statement in single inverted commas and the end of the whole sentence beginning He said... It is unnecessary to use two full stops here and the normal practice is to allow the one inside the closing inverted comma to do the work of both.
He said I never know how to use quotation marks. 55 9. Inverted Commas.
In the second example the words within the inverted commas do not constitute a complete sentence but are merely six quoted words used by a writer the full stop therefore might be placed after the quotation to indicate the end of the whole sentence beginning Quirk argued...
Quirk argued that quotation marks are a nuisance to the writer. 56 9. Inverted Commas.
For the sake of uniformity however many publishing houses place a single full stop within the final inverted comma whatever the situation.
57 9. Inverted Commas.
(ii) Where a direct statement question or exclamation is given in the form of the actual words used and this statement question or exclamation include another that is quoted ( as in the examples in (i) above double inverted commas are used to mark off the quotation within the statement question or exclamation
e.g. The weeping child said I never said What a big nose you have! to auntie.
58 9. Inverted Commas.
(iii) Inverted commas are used to mark a word or phrase outside the predominant variety of English being used
e.g. To argue that economically politically and socially it would be better for Great Britain to leave the European Union is bosh.
59 9. Inverted Commas.
(iv) Inverted commas re used to mark a quotation from an article a book a poem a magazine and so on
To be or not to be is a quotation from Hamlet.
60 10. Italics.
Although italic script is a device used for printing underlining can be used by writers effectively in order to
(i) avoid the confusing over-use of double inverted commas within single inverted commas
it is often clearer and more convenient to underline titles words used outside the predominant variety of English and short quotations
e.g. The judge asked the accused one-armed man Did you not see the notice which said Do not feed the animals 61 10. Italics.
(ii) Stress a word or short phrase
e.g. I cannot really say that I like eating cold porridge.
I positively abhor eating cold lumpy porridge.
62 11. Hyphens.
(i) Hyphens should be used to convey a significance in the relationship on one word to another or others.
For example examine the differences in meaning between
e.g. eleven-year-old children and eleven year-old children.
63 11. Hyphens.
(ii) Hyphens are used to form compound nouns or adjectives especially where such compounds are newly-coined not fully established as compounds or carry a specific meaning
e.g. teddy-boys punk-rockers.
64 11. Hyphens.
(iii) Hyphens often separate elements in a compound word
which would look awkward (perhaps because of a clash of vowels or a danger of confusing consonants ) or
be difficult to read or pronounce if it were written as a single word
e.g. socio-economic hi-fi retro-active.
65 11. Hyphens.
(iv) Hyphens may be used to split words at the end of lines (because of lack of space ) in order to carry them forward to the next line.
It is customary however to divide words in British English at an appropriate morphological point e.g. posit-ion rather than positi-on.
Often this morphological break (i.e. the point at which a unit with its own division of meaning within the word ends) coincides with the syllabic break (i.e. the point at which the part of a word uttered by a single effort of the voice ends) e.g. resent-ment.
66 Bibliography
Banks R.A. (1983). Living English. Hodder and Stoughton.
Purdue University Writing Lab at
http//owl.english.purdue.edu/
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