AHSGE Review for Science From Passing the Alabama Graduation Exam in Science from The American Book

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AHSGE Review for ScienceFrom Passing the Alabama
Graduation Exam in Science from The American Book
Company

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Scientific Process

• Analysis - separation of parts or facts to
  determine their relationship to each other
• Assimilation - process of gathering facts and
  information about an event or phenomenon for the
  purpose of understanding it
• Conclusion - judgement or inference made based on
  observation and experimentation
• Control Group - situation maintained in an
  experiment in which no variable conditions are
  introduced
• Data - collection of observed and measurable
  results
• Deductive reasoning - using a generalization that
  can test a hypothesis or theory to deduce or
  predict a specific event or phenomenon

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Scientific Process cont.

• Experiment - process designed to yield measurable
  results about a hypothesis under carefully
  controlled conditions
• Experimental Group - selected variable conditions
  for experimentation to support or reject a
  hypothesis
• Hypothesis - possible explanation or educated
  guess given as a solution to a problem
• Inductive reasoning - using specific observations
  and measurements to enable a scientist to arrive
  at a generalized explanation of a scientific
  problem which can be expressed as a hypothesis or
  theory
• Observation - noticing an event or phenomenon and
  gathering facts about it without manipulation of
  the evidence
• Prediction - to forecast an event or to
  anticipate the results of an experiment

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Scientific Process cont.

• Results - the end product of an investigation or
  experiment
• Science - an exact study by which we acquire
  knowledge of the universe
• Scientific Process - method of investigation
  which follows logical steps in problem solving
• Theory - complete explanation of how or why
  something happens based on research and testing
• Tables are good ways to organize data
• Line graph are best used to show how one variable
  changes with respect to another
• Bar graphs are used to show easy-to-read,
  unconnected, bars which represent a quantity of
  information
• Circle graphs are used to show parts of a whole

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Steps to the Scientific Method

• 1. Define or state a problem
• 2. State a hypothesis
• 3. Perform an experiment
• 4. Collect data from experiment
• 5. Draw a conclusion for results
• 6. Make predictions about similar situations in
  the future

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Atoms and Elements

• Atom - smallest part of an element composed of
  electrons (e-), neutrons (no), and protons (p)
• Electron shell - energy level where electrons are
  found in concentration as they move around the
  nucleus
• Element - atoms that have the same number of
  protons in the nucleus
• Ion - electrically charged atoms (loses or gains
  e-)
• Metalloids - elements that have properties of
  both metals and nonmetals (touching zigzag line)
• Molecules - chemically bonded group of atoms (act
  as unit)
• Metals - have luster, good conductors of heat and
  electricity, and have one to three electron is
  outer shell (left of zigzag)

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Atoms and Elements cont.

• Noble gases - elements in the last column of the
  periodic chart that are stable and unreactive
  (gases at room temp)
• Nonmetals - outer energy shell contains more than
  four electrons and they are dull in appearance
  and do not conduct heat well (right of the zigzag
  line)
• Nucleus - central portion of an atom containing
  no and p
• Radiation - transfer of energy by waves as
  particles are released from a decaying nucleus

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Structure of the Atom

• Atomic Theory - states that all matter is made up
  of tiny particles called atoms
• Octet rule - states that the outer shell of
  electrons cannot hold more that eight electrons
• Valence electrons - number of electrons in outer
  shell of an atom (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8)
• Oxidation number - tells how many electrons an
  atom gives or takes when it reacts (1, 2, 3,
  /-4, -3, -2, -1, 0)

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Elements

• The number of p in an atom gives the atom its
  identity
• If the number of protons changes, the element
  changes
• Elements on the periodic chart are arranged
  according to their atomic number ( of p)
• When you add p plus no, it is equal to the
  atomic mass or mass number
• Atoms of the same element do not always have the
  same number of neutrons (isotopes)
• In metals, reactivity increase the further left
  and down you go in the chart (most reactive metal
  if francium)
• In nonmetals, reactivity increases the further
  right and up you go (most reactive nonmetal is
  fluorine)

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Elements cont.

• The first column of elements are the Alkali
  Metals
• The second column are the Alkaline Earth Metals
• The next to last column are the Halogens
• The small columns in the middle are the
  transition metals
• The two bottom rows are the Actinide and
  Lanthanide Series (rare earth elements)

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Radioactive Elements

• Alpha particles - 2 p and 2 no have a positive
  charge low in energy can be stopped by a piece
  of paper
• Beta particles - 1 e- negative charge medium
  energy 1cm of lead can stop
• Gamma rays - wave of energy no charge, high
  energy, thick lead or thicker concrete can stop

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Bonding of Atoms

• Ionic bond - results from transfer of electrons
  from one atom to another very strong bonds high
  melting and boiling points usually solids at
  room temp. usually between a metal and nonmetal
• Covalent bond - formed when two or more elements
  share electrons to create a more stable outer
  electron structure weaker bonds low melting and
  boiling points between two or more nonmetals
  diatomic molecules form these

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Physical and Chemical Changes in Matter

• Catalyst - substance which speed up a chemical
  reaction without being used up in process
• Chemical change - rearrangement of the atoms
  within substances to form a product totally
  different from the original substance(energy is
  taken in or given off)
• Physical change - change in form or state of
  matter in which the molecular structure of a
  substance remains unchanged while the appearance
  may be altered (most common is phase changes of
  matter)
• Products - substances produced at the end of a
  chemical reaction
• Reactants - starting substances in a chemical
  reaction

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Physical and Chemical Changes in Matter

• Surface area - the exposed area of a substance
  involved in a chemical change
• Temperature - the degree of average kinetic
  energy within a substance which is measured as
  heat
• The Law of Conservation of Matter - states that
  in a physical or chemical change, matter is
  neither created or destroyed

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Chemical Changes

• Combustion - a chemical process in which light
  and heat are produced
• Fermentation - a chemical change in which a
  partial breakdown of substances occurs without
  the presence of oxygen
• Electrolysis - the decomposition of a compound
  into simpler substances by passing an electric
  current through the compound

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Rates of Chemical Reactions

• The addition of a catalyst to a reaction will
  cause the reaction to speed up (in the end, the
  catalyst can be recovered without having been
  changed)
• The greater the surface area of the reactant
  substances, the faster the reaction between two
  substances will take place

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States of Matter

• Physical Characteristics of Matter are
  identifying characteristics of matter such as
  color, odor, feel, shape, solubility, hardness,
  mass, weight, and taste
• Chemical Characteristics of Matter are
  identifying characteristics of matter such as
  atomic structure, density of atoms within matter,
  and molecular bonds

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States of Matter cont.

• Gas - has no definite shape and no definite
  volume (fills any container)
• Liquid - has definite volume and no definite
  shape (takes shape of container)
• Solid - has a definite shape and volume
• Matter - a substance existing alone or in some
  combination

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Characteristics of Liquids

• Viscosity - resistance of a liquid to flow
• Surface tension - tendency of a liquid to form a
  skin on the surface
• Cohesion - attraction between particles of the
  same substance
• Adhesion - attraction between particles of
  different substances

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Characteristics of Solids

• Malleable - can be hammered into thin sheets
• Ductile - can be drawn into a wire
• Elasticity - can be stretched or bent and
  returned to its original shape
• Brittleness - the ease with which a solid breaks
  when hammered
• Hardness - is the ability of a solid to resist
  being scratched
• Tensile strength - is the resistance of a solid
  to break under tension

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Transfer of Matter and Energy Through Biological
Systems

• Autotrophs/producers - produce their own food
  through photosynthesis
• Heterotrophs/consumers - depend on others for
  food
• Biotic - living things in an ecosystem
• Abiotic - nonliving things in an ecosystem
• Biological Systems - living organisms which
  interact with their environment and perform
  functions necessary for life
• Cellular Respiration - series of chemical changes
  within a cell in which sugar is broken down,
  oxygen is used, energy is released, and water and
  carbon dioxide are produced

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Transfer of Matter and Energy Through Biological
Systems

• Decomposers - help to break down and decompose
  dead organisms and the wastes of living organisms
  (fungi bacteria)
• Energy - inner cellular power within an organism
  to carry on activities necessary to live
• Energy Pyramid - the transfer through feeding
  levels of a food chain from producers to various
  numbers of consumers
• Food Chain - flow of energy and organic material
  in which the lowest organisms become food for the
  next highest organisms
• Food Web - all the interconnecting food chains in
  an ecosystem

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Transfer of Matter and Energy Through Biological
Systems

• Matter - anything that takes up space
• Nutrients - materials needed by the cell to live
  and grow
• Photosynthesis - the process in which a plant
  makes food from water and carbon dioxide using
  energy from the sun
• Herbivores - animals that eat only plants
• Omnivores - animals that eat both plants and
  other animals
• Carnivores - animals that eat only other animals
• Photosynthesis 6CO2 6H2O C6H12O6
  6O2
• Respiration C6H12O6 6O2 6CO2
  6H2O energy

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Diversity of Life

• Aerobes - organisms that use oxygen to break down
  food and release energy
• Anaerobes - organisms that do not use oxygen to
  break down food and release energy
• Binomial Nomenclature - a system developed by
  Linnaeus for naming living things (Homo sapien or
  Homo sapien)
• Parasites - organisms that live on or in another
  organism and are harmful to that organism
• Plankton - organisms that float on or near the
  surface of the ocean
• Saprophytes - organisms that feed on dead matter
• Taxonomy - the science of classifying living
  things

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Taxonomy

• Living things are classified according to their
  evolutionary relationships (structure, chemistry,
  similarities, development, behavior, nutritional
  needs, methods of obtaining food, and DNA)
• Kingdom is the most inclusive classification and
  species is the least inclusive Ex.
• King Kingdom Animalia
• Phillip Phylum Chordata
• Came Class Mammalia
• Over Order Primates
• For Family Hominidae
• Good Genus Homo
• Sport Species sapien

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Monera Kingdom

• Single prokaryotic cell with a cell membrane and
  a cell wall like plants
• Have no membrane-bound organelles or nucleus
• Some contain chlorophyll
• Live in damp places or in water and reproduce by
  asexual fission
• Two phylum of monerans bacteria and
  cyanobacteria
• Viruses are often included in this kingdom

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Protist Kingdom

• Protists can be single-celled or multicellular
• All protists have a nucleus (eukaryotic)
• Some have chlorophyll
• They can be plantlike (euglenas, diatoms,
  dioflagellates, and algae), animal-like
  (ciliates, flagellates, sarcodinas, and
  sporozoa), and fungus-like (molds, mildews, and
  rusts)

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Fungi Kingdom

• Fungi are saprophytes (parasites)
• Have cell walls
• Multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic
• The body of a fungus, the mycelium, is a mass of
  thread-like tubes called hyphae that grow
  underground
• Reproduce by spores or by budding
• Like warm, moist places
• Include zygote fungi, sac fungi, club fungi,
  imperfect fungi, and lichens

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Plant Kingdom

• Angiosperm - flowering plants which develop their
  seeds in a fruit or protective structure
• Chlorophyll - green pigment in plants necessary
  for the process of photosynthesis
• Deciduous - a broad-leafed plant which loses its
  leaves in late autumn
• Evergreen - plant which sheds its leaves and
  grows new ones continuously throughout the year
• Gymnosperm - cone-bearing plants which develop
  their seeds without a protective covering
• Herbaceous - plant with a soft green stem
• Nonvascular - lacking connective or supporting
  tissue
• Vascular - network of connected conducting tubes
  within some plants
• Woody - hard fibrous stem which supports the
  structure of plants

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Plant Kingdom cont.

• Multicellular organisms with specialized tissues
• Have an organized structure consisting of roots,
  stems, and leaves
• Autotropic
• Contain chlorophyll
• Have a cell wall
• Need water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to
  produce sugar and release oxygen
• Bryophytes Non-vascular spore producing plants
• Tracheophytes Vascular plants

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Basic Parts of a Flower

• Stamen - the male structure of the flower
• Pistil - the female structure of the flower
• Anther - produces pollen
• Ovary - produces the ovule
• Stigma - traps the pollen
• Style - the tube from the stigma to the ovary

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Animal Kingdom

• Invertebrates - animals without a backbone or
  internal skeleton account for 90 of all animals
  (porifera, cnidarians, worms, mollusks,
  echinoderms, anthropods)
• Vertebrates - more highly developed with small
  flexible bones along their dorsal side encasing
  the nerve cord (chordata)
• External features - outside appearance
• Internal features - specialized parts of each
  phylum are more highly developed than the
  previous phylum

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Animal Kingdom cont.

• All are multicellular (cells form tissues and
  tissues form organs and organs make up organ
  systems)
• All are heterotrophic
• They grow, reproduce, and develop from larva or
  embryos
• They are free moving at some stage of their
  development
• Respond to their environments and are capable of
  complex reactions to environmental stimuli
• As animal systems become more complex, the organ
  systems are more highly developed and specialized

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Systems Found in Organisms

• Digestive System - take food into the body and
  break it down (mouth, esophagus, stomach,
  intestines, anus)
• Circulatory System - carry food and oxygen to all
  the cells of the organism (heart, arteries,
  veins, capillaries)
• Respiratory System - supply the body cells with
  O2 and eliminate CO2 (trachea, bronchi, lungs,
  alveoli)
• Excretory System - remove excess H2O and waste
  products from the organism (cells, veins,
  kidneys, skin)
• Nervous System - detect and respond to stimuli in
  the environment, controls and coordinates body
  movement and body processes (brain, spinal cord,
  nerve cells, ganglia, sense organs)

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Systems Found in Organisms cont.

• Muscular System - responsible for body movement
  (muscle tissues or cells)
• Reproductive System - produce eggs and sperm and
  contain developing embryo (testes, ovary, uterus)
• Skeletal System - work together to provide
  support for the body (bones, cartilage,
  ligaments, chitin)

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Cells

• Active transport - movement of substances through
  a membrane with the use of energy
• Cell - the unit of structure, function, and
  development
• Chromatin - the substance of which chromosomes
  are made proteins, DNA, and RNA
• Endocytosis - a type of active transport that
  imports particles or small cells into a cell
• Eukaryotic cells - having a true nucleus with a
  nuclear membrane and organelles
• Exocytosis - a form of active transport by which
  cells move molecules, particles, or other cells
  contained in vesicles across the plasma membrane
  to the cells environment

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Cells cont.

• Gametes - a reproductive cell that contains half
  the normal number of chromosomes a sperm or egg
  cell
• Homologous chromosomes - pair of chromosomes that
  resemble each other in length, shape, and the
  genes they carry (one from mother and other from
  father)
• Meiosis - type of cell division that results in
  two daughter cells, each with half the number of
  chromosomes of the parent
• Mitosis - type of cell division that results in
  two daughter cells that have the same number and
  kind of chromosomes as the mother cell

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Cells cont.

• Multicellular - an organism that is composed of
  more than one cell with each cell having a
  particular function unique to the well-being of
  the organism
• Organelles - parts of the cell whose function are
  to contribute to the nourishment, function, and
  development of the entire cell
• Passive transport - movement of substances into
  and out of a cell without the use of energy
• Plasma membrane - selective permeable, molecular
  boundary that separates the cytoplasm of a cell
  from the external environment
• Prokaryotic cells - have no organized membrane
  between DNA and cytoplasm and no true organelles

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Cell Organelles

• Nucleus - control center of cell storage of
  hereditary information
• Endoplasmic reticulum - system of folded membrane
  in cytoplasm protein synthesis and distribution
  of materials throughout the cell
• Ribosomes - round-shaped structures in the
  cytoplasm sites of protein synthesis
• Mitochondria - powerhouse of the cell,
  rod-shaped chemical energy conversions for cell
  metabolism
• Plastids (plants only) - structures that contain
  chloroplasts conversion of light energy into
  chemical energy, store food
• Golgi complex - flattened membrane sacs
  synthesis, packaging, and distribution of
  materials in the cell

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Cell Organelles cont.

• Lysosomes - type of storage vesicle digestion,
  waste removal
• Microbodies - membranes containing enzymes
  chemical conversions of fats to carbohydrates,
  discharge of wastes
• Vacuoles - spherical vesicle digestion, storage,
  and elimination
• Microfilaments and Microtubules - fibers and
  tubes of protein movement of internal cell parts
• Cilia and Flagella - short and long extensions of
  microtubes from the surface of the cell
  locomotion and production of currents that draw
  in food
• Centrioles - short tubes near the Golgi bodies
  necessary for cell reproduction within cells

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Passive Transport

• Diffusion - move from areas of high concentration
  to areas of low concentration
• Facilitated diffusion - special diffusion that
  occurs when carrier-proteins in the plasma
  membrane assist in the passage of materials into
  or out of the cell
• Osmosis - movement of water through a
  semi-permeable membrane from an area of high
  water concentration to an area of low water
  concentration
• Hypotonic solution - when a cell is surrounded by
  a solution that has smaller concentrations of
  dissolved substances (swell and burst)
• Hypertonic solution - solution on the outside of
  the cell is higher concentration than inside the
  cell (shrivel and die)
• Isotonic solution - equal concentration inside
  and outside

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Active Transport

• Exocytosis - a form of active transport in which
  a cell discharges materials out of the cell
• Endocytosis - a form of active transport in which
  a cell imports substances into the cell

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Mitosis

• Type of cell division which generates two
  daughter cells with the identical components of
  the mother cell
• The daughter cells are identical to each other as
  well as the parent cell
• The daughter cells have the same diploid (2n)
  number of chromosomes as the parent
• Diploid number is 23 pairs or 46 chromosomes
• Diploid cells are known as somatic cells

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Stages of Mitosis

• Prophase - the nucleus of the cell organizes the
  chromatin material into thread-like structures
  called chromosomes spindles form between the
  centrioles
• Metaphase - the chromosomes attached at the
  center or centromeres line up on the spindle at
  the center of the cell
• Anaphase - chromosomes separate at the center,
  and the spindles pull them toward either end of
  the cell a nuclear membrane forms around the
  chromosomes as they disorganize
• Telophase - chromatin again forms from the
  chromosomes, and a cell membrane grows across the
  center between the two nuclei

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Meiosis

• Type of cell division necessary for sexual
  reproduction
• Produces four reproductive cells with half the
  number (haploid) of chromosomes of the mother
  cell
• Haploid number is 23 single chromosomes
• There are two cell divisions, meiosis I and
  meiosis II
• Haploid cells are known as reproductive cells

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Heredity and Genetics

• Allele - alternate forms of a gene carried by an
  individual
• Chromosome - a strand of DNA in the nucleus of a
  cell along which genes are located
• DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid, coiled
  double-stranded molecules that carry the genetic
  code
• Dominant - one genetic trait that expresses
  itself over a recessive trait
• Gene - the basic unit for heredity found encoded
  on the DNA of a chromosome
• Genetics - the study of the passage of biological
  information from one generation to the next

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Heredity and Genetics cont.

• Heredity - the passing on of characteristic
  traits from parent to offspring
• Meiosis - the process of cell division in which
  cells are produced that contain only half the
  number (n) of chromosomes present in the parent
  cell
• Mutation - a sudden change in the DNA pattern
  passed on to offspring
• Protein synthesis - the process within the cell
  which combines amino acids
• RNA - ribonucleic acid, a single-stranded
  molecule involved in the manufacture of proteins
  by a cell
• Recessive - a genetic trait that is suppressed in
  the presence of a dominant allele

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Genetic Expression

• Alternate forms of a gene are called alleles
• Genes can be dominant or recessive
• Dominant traits show up over recessive ones
• The combination of alleles is the genotype (RR or
  Rr or rr)
• The appearance of the trait is the phenotype
  (round or wrinkled)
• If you have two like alleles then homozygous
• If two different alleles then heterozygous

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Punnett Square

• Used to express the possible combinations for a
  certain trait an offspring may inherit from the
  parents (shows genotypes)
• T t
• T TT Tt 121 Ratio
• t Tt tt 25 homozygous tall
• 50 heterozygous
  tall
• 25 short

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DNA

• The longs strands of DNA are made up of sugars
  and phosphates
• Short strands are nitrogen-containing structures
  called bases (adenine, thymine, guanine, and
  cytosine)
• Adenine and thymine always pair up
• Guanine and cytosine always pair up

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DNA cont.

• Replication - the process of making an exact copy
  of DNA
• Transcription - the process of making messenger
  RNA
• Translation - the process in which transfer RNA
  picks up and carries amino acids to the messenger
  RNA at the ribosomes

52
Genetic Mutations

• Mistakes in the duplication of the chromatin
  material are called mutations
• Take place in the nucleus of the cell during the
  replication process during cell division
• Most are harmful to an organism, few are
  beneficial
• Gene mutations - mistakes that affect individual
  genes on a chromosome
• Chromosomal mutations - mistakes that affect the
  whole chromosome
• Mutations in the somatic cells (non-reproductive
  cells) affect only the tissues of the organism
• Mutations in the reproductive cells may be
  transmitted to the gametes formed in meiosis and
  passed to offspring

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Causes of Mutations

• Radiation exposure can alter sex cells in humans,
  which directly affect the offspring by increasing
  the number of mutations
• Natural mutation-causing chemicals in food and
  human-made chemicals and pollutants can cause
  mutations
• Extremely high temperatures can cause mutations
• Some kinds of viruses can cause mutations

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Diseases and Disorders

• Hemophilia - a sex-linked inherited condition
  involving failure of blood to clot properly
  defective gene is on the X chromosome
• Downs Syndrome - a person that has an extra
  chromosome that occurred when the DNA replicated
  at the 21st chromosome the extra chromosome
  interferes with the normal growth and development
  of the heart, brain, eyes, and hands
• Sickle-cell - disease that is an inherited trait
  in African Americans it is a result of two
  recessive genes
• Phenylketonuria (PKU) - an inherited disease
  resulting from a missing enzyme needed to change
  amino acid phenylalanine to tyrosine the
  phenylalanine builds up in the blood and urine
  and caused brain damage

55
Interdependence of Living Organisms

• Adaptation - a process by which an organism or
  species becomes better suited to a change in its
  environment
• Communities - the interaction of living things in
  a given area
• Convergent evolution - a process in which
  unrelated species developed similar
  characteristics
• Divergent evolution - a process by which many
  different species developed from a common
  ancestor
• Ecosystem - an environment made up of biotic and
  abiotic interactions
• Greenhouse Effect - temperature increase due to
  carbon dioxide buildup in the atmosphere

56
Interdependence of Living Organisms cont.

• Pollution - introduction of unwanted or unhealthy
  materials to an environment
• Population - the number of individuals of a
  species in a given area
• Biosphere - a very thin zone around the earth
  where living things are found (contains both
  biotic abiotic factors)
• Producers - members of the ecosystem which use
  abiotic factors to make and store energy (trees,
  shrubs, bushes, moss)
• Consumers - members of the ecosystem which depend
  on other members for their food (deer, foxes,
  mice, spiders)
• Decomposers - feed on dead and decaying organisms
  to reduce them to the simplest forms (mushrooms,
  fungi, bacteria)

57
Interdependence of Living Organisms cont.

• Habitat - the dwelling place where an organism
  seeks food and shelter
• Niche - an organisms useful place as a
  productive member in the community
• Predator -an animal that feeds on other living
  things
• Prey - the animals that predators eat

58
Symbiotic Relationships

• Commensalism - a symbiotic relationship in which
  one member benefits from another, but no harm is
  done to the host (barnacles on a whale)
• Mutualism -a symbiotic relationship in which two
  organisms live together in dependency on each
  other (protozoa live in the human intestines)
• Parasitism - a symbiotic relationship that
  benefits one organism but harms the other
  (tapeworms in humans)

59
Diseases

• Pathogens - bacteria that causes disease in
  humans (tuberculosis, typhus, cholera)
• Antibiotics - used to fight bacterial infections
  (penicillin)
• Viruses - parasites that use the material of the
  host cell to reproduce cannot grow, reproduce,
  or carry on respiration without a host (common
  cold, pneumonia, polio, measles, chicken pox,
  flu, AIDS)
• Vaccines - used to fight viral infections
  contain weakened or dead viruses that no longer
  cause the disease vaccine caused the body to
  produce antibodies
• Trichinosis - disease in humans caused by the
  parasite called trichina worms

60
Ecosystem and Populations

• Ecological succession - occurs when one community
  slowly replaces another as the environment
  changes
• Climax community - when a few organism establish
  themselves and become the dominant species in the
  area (prairies or rainforests)
• Primary succession - when the plants and animals
  of an ecosystem have reached a stable and
  balanced biotic interaction
• Secondary succession - the natural act of
  reclaiming an area (native plants will once again
  reclaim land where crops were raised)
• Ecological balance - the relationship between the
  number of plants in an ecosystem and the number
  of animals in the system

61
Things that change Ecosystems

• Fires
• Dams
• Mining
• Floods
• Volcanic eruptions
• Dumping chemicals (water pollution)
• Acid rain
• Air pollution

62
Transfer of Energy

• Amplitude - height of a wave
• Decibel - unit used to measure the intensity of
  sound
• Energy - ability to do work
• Frequency - number of waves that pass a point in
  a given unit of time
• Hertz - measure of wave frequency and vibrations
  abbreviated as Hz (1 Hz is one cycle per second)
• Kinetic energy - energy of motion
• Laser - device that produces a highly
  concentrated, powerful beam of coherent light
  which is all one frequency or color
• Photon - particle of radiant wave energy
• Pitch - tone of a sound wave, determined by the
  frequency of the wave

63
Transfer of Energy cont.

• Potential energy - stored energy
• Prism - transparent material with two straight
  faces at an angle to each other
• Radiation - process of transfer of heat energy by
  waves from an area of high temperature to an area
  of low temperature
• Reflection - bouncing of a wave or ray off a
  surface
• Refraction - bending of a wave or ray caused by a
  change in speed as it passes from one substance
  into another
• Vibration - rapid back and forth movement of
  matter
• Velocity - speed of matter in a definite
  direction
• Waves - rhythmic disturbance which travels
  through space or matter
• Wavelength - distance between peaks of a wave

64
Transferring of Heat

• Heat - the energy transferred between matter as a
  result of differences in temperature (increase in
  temp increases the particle movement and vice
  versa)
• Conduction - kinetic energy is transferred as
  particles hit each other (coffee heats up the
  spoon)
• Convection - in liquids and gases causes
  currents which carry heat upward (mirage)
• Radiation - transfer of heat energy by waves in
  space (fireplace)
• Conductors - substances through which heat energy
  is allowed to transfer quickly
• Insulators - slow the transfer of heat

65
Waves

• Transverse waves - up and down movements in which
  the motion of the medium is at right angles to
  the direction of the wave (water and light waves)
• Longitudinal or Compression waves - a series of
  pushes in which the motion of the medium is
  parallel to the direction of the wave (sound
  waves)
• Long wavelength has low frequency and low energy
• Short wavelength has high frequency and high
  energy

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Earthquake Waves

• Primary (P) waves - compressional waves that move
  in push-pull motions similar to sound waves
  travel through the earth and can pass through
  solids, liquids, and gases fastest and first
  detected
• Shear (S) waves - called secondary waves
  transverse waves that cause rock to shake
  sideways travel through earth but only pass
  through solids travel about half the speed of P
  waves
• Long (L) waves - slow-moving waves which travel
  along the earths surface slowest of all

67
Force and Motion

• Acceleration (m/s2) - change in velocity over
  time
• Force (N) - push or pull exerted on matter
• Friction - force between surfaces that opposes
  motion
• Gravity - force of attraction between any two
  objects that have mass
• Inertia - tendency of an object at rest or in
  motion to remain at rest or in motion
• Joule - unit of work equal to one Newton meter
• Machine - device which can affect force or effort
• Motion - change in the position of an object as
  compared with a reference point
• Newton - unit of force

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Force and Motion cont.

• Velocity - speed in a definite direction
• Watt - unit of power equal to one joule per
  second
• Work (J) - any process in which matter is moved
  by the action of force
• Force (N) mass (kg) acceleration (m/s2)
• Weight (N) mass (kg) acceleration (m/s2)

69
Universal Law of Gravity

• Formulated by Sir Isaac Newton
• Every object in the universe pulls on every other
  object
• The more mass an object has, the greater its
  gravitational force
• The greater the distance between two objects, the
  less attraction they have for each other

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Work and Power

• Work is the product of the force applied to an
  object and the distance the object moves
  measured in joules
• work (J) force (N) distance (m)
• Power is the work done per unit of time
• power (W) work (J)/time (s)

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Newtons Laws of Motion

• 1st - an object which is moving or at a state of
  rest does not change its state of motion unless a
  force acts on it Law of Inertia (a ball will
  roll in a straight line until it hits a wall)
• 2nd - acceleration of an object increases as the
  amount of force causing the acceleration
  increases (if you push two carts with the same
  force, the smaller cart accelerates greater)
• 3rd - for every force, there is an equal and
  opposite force (when two identical balls
  traveling at the same speed collide, they change
  direction)

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Pressure

• Only one kind of matter can occupy a given space
  at a given time
• Pressure - force that acts over a certain area
• If pressure on the outside of an object is equal
  to the pressure on the inside of an object, then
  nothing moves (vacuum cleaner lowers pressure
  inside so it can suck up dirt)
• Suction is a result of unequal air pressure
  (using a straw to drink coke)