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1 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS Remadevi. S 2 WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Any kind of research that produced findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means quantification.
It is concerned more with meanings and processes rather than simply measurements.
Qualitative research is based on a methodology which seeks to understand human behaviour from the subjects own frame of reference hence it is called Phenomenological.
3 WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH (contd)
Aims to elicit the individual contextualized understanding of a problem
Achieved through designs that minimize researcher manipulation of social setting
Close interaction with subjects
Meaning and interpretation cannot be dealt with statistically
4 WHY QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Human behaviours is significantly influenced by the setting in which it occurs
The technique in quantitative research can affect the findings
One cannot understand the human behaviour without understanding the framework within which subjects interpret their feelings thoughts and actions
5 WHY QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
More valid results based on research experiences.
Nature of research problems some problems lend more to qualitative research
Helps to understand what lies behind any phenomenon about which little is known
6 WHY QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Contd
Details of phenomena that are difficult to convey with quantitative methods
Questionnaires developed in the West threat to validity in our setting Qualitative methods in the initial phase avoid type III error
Culturally appropriate measuring instruments Etic Vs. Emic approach
7 WHY QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Contd
It helps in identifying variables important to the phenomenon under study
To understand the perceptions and experiences of participants and community
Field study research can explore the process and meaning and provide comprehensive description
8 FUNCTIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Developing and delineating program elements before a quantitative evaluation
Boosting the power of quantitative design
Broadening the observation field
Analyzing process and individual cases to explain the how and why of an outcome
Generating theory
9 PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 10 POSITIVISM
Refers to the belief that social science can be scientific in the same way as physical science and prefer quantitative methods
Assume that reality is objectively given and can be described by measurable properties independent of the observer
Prefers a method standardized repeatable and that test a pre-existing hypothesis
11 PHENOMENOLOGY(Edmond Husserl)
Study situations in the everyday world - viewpoint of the experiencing person
Focus on the social construction of the life world emphasizing that peoples actions can only be understood when they are situated in the meanings and routines that control their everyday life.
Gain understanding of the essence of phenomena Eg. Sufferings of schizophrenia
12 ETHNOGRAPHY
Closely associated with anthropological research
Focus on culture of a group of people
Interpret and present findings from a cultural perspective
Heart of Ethnography- Thick description obtained through an immersion in the every day life of the group or a given social setting
13 SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM(G.H.Mead)
Through the process of role taking a person imagines how they appear to others thus becoming a symbolic object to themselves
Experiences takes on meaning as they become symbolically significant through shared interactions
Meanings are continually createdrecreated and modified in interactions
14 FEMINISM
It is argued (Dorothy Smith) as a consciousness raising that it attempts to identify how private experiences of oppression may be understood as part of a general system of oppression that shapes womens experience
Many womens private issues are not recorded as shared public issues
Advocates methods that enable women to express their experiences from their own perspective
15 HERMANEUTICS
Examine the way people develop interpretation of their life in relation to their life experiences
Similar to phenomenology but takes a broader view of both past and future and broader cultural factors Eg Story telling
16 GROUNDED THEORY
An inductive technique developed by Glaser and Strauss(1967)
Grounded Theories are grounded ( it has its root) in the empirical data and built up inductively through a process of careful analysis and comparison
Developed in opposition to positivist and deductive approach
17 WHEN TO USE Q.R
To inform what people are doing thinking and saying about a problem
To identify the important problem to be solved at community/local/policy levels
Generate a list of options for interventions
To investigate how best to implement promising interventions
To monitor response to interventions and assess how best to present its results to public and scientific community
18 WHEN NOT TO USE
When numbers are needed to make a decision (what proportion of people )
Results are to be projected to the total population (unless generalisability ensured by researcher through appropriate measures)
19 WHAT KINDS OF SKILLS REQUIRED FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative Research required theoretical and social sensitivity
Ability to maintain analytical distance while drawing upon experience and knowledge to interpret what is seen
Power of observation
Good interactional skills.
20 WHAT KINDS OF SKILLS REQUIRED FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Ability to organize and synthesize many different types of data
Ability to gain trust of individuals / groups
Respect for individuals and awareness of the ethical responsibilities
Knowledge and experience of socialculturalreli gious and economic characteristic of group/community/setting.
21 COMPONENTS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Data come from various sources
Different analytic or interpretive procedures.
E.g. Coding Writing of memos diagramming
Written and Verbal reports.
22 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
NATURALISTIC Natural setting as source of data
INDUCTIVE It seeks to build theory from data avoid imposing researcher own categories of analysis
HOLISTIC It looks at the phenomenon in totality takes an overall perspective
23 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
THICK DESCRIPTION Descriptive in that the researcher is interested in process meaning understanding gained through words pictures use quotations
PERSONAL CONTACT Shares the experience of subjects not trying to be an objective outsider
DYNAMIC There is constant shifting with changing phenomenon context
24 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
UNIQUE CASE SELECTION Not concerned about generalization stress on uniqueness of each case
CONTEXT SENSITIVITY Emphasis many aspects of social historical physical contexts
EMPATHETIC Trying to take view of other person via introspection reflection yet non-judgemental
25 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
FLEXIBLE DESIGN- Emergent design as opposed to pre-determined in quan.methods
INTERPRETIVE Aimed at discovering the meaning the events have for the individuals who experience them interpretation of these meaning by researcher
PROCESS ORIENTED Primarily concerned with process rather than outcome
26 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
RESEARCHER AS INSTRUMENT Data are mediated through human instrument rather than inventories or questionnaires
MULTIPLE SOURCES OF EVIDENCE-Multiple forms of evidence. Judgment at usefulness and credibility is left to the researcher
27 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE Vs. GOALS Stress upon verification of theory by using statistical prediction Tests hypothesis Discovery of theory understanding of phenomena under study suggests hypothesis. 28 QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE Vs. SCOPE
Particularistic guided by objectives
Generalize and extrapolate findings
Holistic rich in context emphasizes interactions
Recognizes the individuality of responses and findings.
29 QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE Vs. SETTING DESIGN
Unfamiliar artificial
PRE-determined structured design. Manipulation control
Familiar natural
Flexible evolving design
30 QUANTITATIVE QUANLITATIVE Vs. DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Cross sectional studies cohort case control RCT
Semi structured / unstructured interviews Focus group discussions observations key informantinterviews case study
31 QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE Vs. TYPES OF DATA
Deals with words texts and observations
Open ended. Depth of information.
Produce a wealth of detailed data about a much smaller number of people. Depends on purpose resources and interests of those involved.
Deals with numbers
Use of standardized approach - the experiences of people are limited to certain predetermined response categories
Measure reactions of many subjects to set of questions thus facilitating comparison and statistical aggregation of data
32 QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE Vs. SAMPLING
Probability Sampling
Non-Probability sampling-Typically focus in depth on small samples selected purposively
SAMPLE SIZE
Large Sample Size
No rule for sample size. Depends on what you want to know purpose of enquiring what will be useful what will have credibility and what can be done with available resources.
33 QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE Vs. DATA COLLECTION
Researcher as primary instrument Personal involvement empathic understanding
Inanimate Instruments- ScalesTests Questionnaires
Detachment objective portrayal
34 QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE Vs. ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
Analysis tend to be deductive. Test hypothesis using quantitative methods Statistical analysis
Usually inductive. unit of analysis can be individuals families groups. No statistical techniques used.
35 QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE Vs. FINDINGS
Generalizations made. Statistical predictions because of representative sample.
Reliability
More in depth data and help us to find out how and why of an outcome. Sequence of event depicted.
Validity
36 SAMPLING- QUAL. STUDIES
NON- PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Purposeful selection
Goal is to understand phenomena not to represent population
Selection of information-rich cases for intensive study
37 Non-probability Sampling
Quota Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Typical Case Sampling
Critical Case Sampling
Homogeneous
Maximum variation
Extreme or deviant cases
Criterion Sampling
38 Quota sampling
It is a form of convenient sampling
Selection of quota groups of accessible sampling units by age sex social class etc
Assignment of quota groups specified by predetermined traits in specific proportions
A method of stratified sampling in which selection within strata is non-random
39 SNOWBALL SAMPLING
Subjects are asked to recommend others they know for the researcher to contact
Useful in studies of social networks or in difficult to find populations
Use in research on sensitive issues like sexual practices IV drug use etc.
40 Typical and deviant case sampling
To describe a typical case serves as a profile for understanding the principal features of a group of programes or class of individuals.
Sample typical case as illustrative
In deviant case sampling cases at either end of a continuum or unusual cases are selected
More useful in finding critical variables contributing to the phenomenon
41 Critical case sampling
Its effectiveness depends on understanding what is happening in that case
Identification depends on key factors that make a case as critical
The results of intervention would provide a critical case for the feasibility of the programe
If it works here it will work everywhere
42 Homogeneous sampling
Subjects with similarities in background are selected
Better able to focus on a central issue that is relevant to all of them
Eg. Focus Group Discussion (stimulating people with a common identity to discuss their shared experiences)
43 Maximum variation sampling
Selecting sample with maximum variation in defined attributes eg. Education gender
To highlight the experiences or outcomes which these maximally varied samples have in common
Document unique experiences shared patterns
44 Criterion sampling
Sample cases to meet a criterion of importance to the study eg. membership in a particular group or participation in a programme
May be done as follow up of a survey to identify particular subjects for in-depth analyses
45 Sample Size
The validity meaningfulness and insights generated from qualitative enquiry have more to do with the informationrichness of cases selected and the observational/ analytical capabilities of the researcher than with sample size (patton)
46 Sample size
Depends upon completion of data- sample selection to the point of redundancy
Might begin with small sample based on expected reasonable coverage and expand if needed
Large enough to make meaningful comparisons
Small purposive samples based on study purpose but describe justify and explain
Care not to over generalize from purposive samples
47 Factors affecting sample size
No of comparison groups- more groups more samples
Complexity and depth of information- more in-depth information go for small sample
Explain similarities and differences in particular context
Availability of resources
48 Data collection methods
In-depth Interviews
Key informant Interviews
Observation
Focus Group Discussions
Case studies
Illness narratives Surrogate patient studies
PRA / PLA Techniques
49 IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW 50 What is an In-depth Interview
It is a qualitative research technique that allows person to person discussion which can lead to increased insight into peoples thoughts feelings and behaviour on important issues.
It can be used as one of the effective ways for understanding reasons for problem behaviours and gather ideas to guide measures to correct a problem
Characterized by extensive probing and open-ended questions
51 When to use an In-depth Interview
Subject matter is complex
Detailed information sought
Highly sensitive subject matter
Interest on individual experiences and its unique interpretation
Respondents dissimilar to be meaningfully grouped
52 Preparing for the interview
Identification of the respondents
Ensure Trained interviewer
Selection of a comfortable location
Other logistics- transport audio or video etc
Consider access to local population
53 Selection of Informants
Limit to a small sample size
Select people who are well informed about the issue
Purposive sampling
Respondents fairly representative of the various groups in the study population
Informant preferably unknown to interviewers
54 Tools for data collection
Interview guide
Structured open-ended schedule
Different sets may be needed suitable to different categories in the study population
The guide makes the interviewing more systematic and comprehensive
55 Preparing the Interview Guide
List the important topics to be explored in the study Eg. Malnutrition among children- Feeding adequacy Care of the child Health seeking
Write sub themes for each topic Eg. Under feeding adequacy elicit information Breast feeding weaning complimentary feeding food preferences etc.
Make a draft of possible questions based on conceptual frame work
Check that they can help you obtain all the information you need
Questions not to elicit simple Yes or No answers
56 Preparing the Interview guide
Construction of probes
Probes are devices used to prompt a respondent to speak further when an initial question fails to elicit the desired information
Sequence of topics- Never rigid. Phrasing and order may be redefined to fit the characteristics of respondent
57 Preparing the interview guide
Ensure that your questions are
Clear and unambiguous
Simple and easy to understand
Reasonable and within the experience of the targeted population
58 Interviewer qualities
Experienced/Skilled
Knowledge about the topic
Personality traits easily gain peoples confidence and cooperation good speech and language proficiency
Other qualities self confidence ability to establish rapport good listener politeness articulate enough to prompt respondents to talk
Training is a pre-requisite if team work
59 Interview Techniques
Unstructured interviews
Semi-structured interviews
Structured open-ended interviews
60 Conducting the interviews
Self introduction
Explain the general purpose of the interview
Impress upon the respondent that his opinions are important
Seek privacy
Establish rapport and assure confidentiality
Consent for the interview recording
61 Conducting the interviews
Carry the interview in a natural conversational style
Know the objectives of each question to make sure that the answers satisfy it
Interview runs dry use expressions like Uh-huh or That is interesting or I see
Be alert to discover drifting of conversation
Wrapping-up of interview
62 Questioning Techniques
Ask clear and open-ended questions
Ask behaviour /experience before opinion questions
Sequence-follow a funnelling method-general to specific
Probe and follow-up questions Eg . Could you tell me more about it
63 Managing specific situations
Reluctant participant
Speculation can help to open up .eg. I am not sure could it be that women do not have access to health care compared to men
Try to explore their thoughts Eg. Could you elaborate on that Or explain why you think that way
64 Managing specific situations
Rambler Politely control Eg. Excuse me could we change the subject a bit and get back on your thoughts on ..
Participant uncomfortable- Let them talk about the part he/she comfortable with.
Methdological memos What happened during the interview quality of dataparticipantcomfortleve l
Personal memos Interviewer relaxed Were he inhibited in asking certain questions
69 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
Explanatory tool
Emic perspective
Facilitate rapport
More appropriate in rural setting
Responses more valid
Disadvantages
Replicality difficult
Results not strictly comparable
Time consuming
Require familiarity with language and culture
70 Qualitative Data Analysis 71 Steps in qualitative data analysis
Reading Developing an intimate relationship with the data
Coding Identifying emergent themes
Choosing and using a software if needed
Displaying data
Developing hypothesis questioning verifying
Data reduction Getting the big picture and interpretation
72 Coding
Deductive coding
Done prior to data collection
Use existing literature or theoretical frames to develop categories for coding prior to field work
Provides a conceptual framework to guide the research
73 Coding Contd.
Inductive Coding
Designs coding scheme from data collected through interviews FGDs etc
They are like street signs inserted into margins of notes or typed in after a segment of text
Main purpose is to allow research findings to emerge from frequent dominant or significant themes inherent in raw data
74 Inductive Coding Contd
Condense extensive raw text
Establish clear links between research objectives and findings derived from raw data
Develop a model or theory about underlying structure of experience or processes evident in the raw data
75 Coding procedures in grounded theory
Open coding involves fracturing taking data apart and examining discrete parts for differences and similarities
Axial coding connections are made between categories and sub categories
Selective coding identifying one or more core categories to which all other sub categories relate
76 Coding process in inductive analysis
Create 3-8 summary categories from many pages of text
If more than 8 major themes re-examine them
Decisions on combining and removing unimportant categories need to be made
77 Semi-quantitative analysis
Free-listing
Pile-sorting
Domain identification
Coding
Summarizing
Comparative table across stakeholders (if more than one)
78 Government Health Worker 79 Responses
In your opinion who are the people that generally do not bring their children for polio drops on NIDs
Sometimes it happens that parents are unaware of it or neglect it or there are some parents who do not give importance to it or they go outstation. Till now they have not understood the importance of the drops and that it should be given. Some parents feel we have given three doses (routine doses) to out children and if these are not given it will do. These are the people who dont bring. Usually they are from slum areas. Others are educated they know about it constantly hear on TV/radio so they bring. The area which I had got was a Mehammedan area so the women do not go out of the house. They did not even know that it had to be given. There was an announcement through the mosque but people might not have heard or something else so many children did not turn up.
80 Free listing
In your opinion who are the people that generally do not bring their children for polio drops on NIDs
Sometimes it happens that parents are unaware of it or neglect it or there are some parents who do not give importance to it or they go outstation. Till now they have not understood the importance of the drops and that it should be given. Some parents feel we have given three doses (routine doses) to out children and if these are not given it will do. These are the people who dont bring. Usually they are from slum areas. Others are educated they know about it constantly hear on TV/radio so they bring. The area which I had got was a Mehammedan area so the women do not go out of the house. They did not even know that it had to be given. There was an announcement through the mosque but people might not have heard or something else so many children did not turn up.
81
Domain Evolution
In your opinion who are the people that generally do not bring their children for polio drops on NIDs
0. Dont know
None (everybody received OPV)
Laborers / daily wages / beggars (affordability)
No one at home / adult sickness
Migrants / tribal (accessibility / out of station / traveling
People with remote residence / adverse weather / transport difficulties (accessibility)
Bad past experience (due to /fear of side effects) / fear of polio even after polio drops (acceptability)
Non believers (no faith / believers of other systems / superstitions / rumours / socio-cultural / religious / death / caste)
Misinformed groups (rich / educated) / do not like to go to IP / go to private practitioner / wrong impression)
Lack of awareness / Illiterate
Children with illness / new born (acceptability)
Negative influences of the other family members / decision of family members
Irrelevant
Blank
Not applicable
82 Coding In your opinion who are the people that generally do not bring their children for polio drops on NIDs 7. Superstitious people who say it is all in hands of almighty there is no need of drops 3. If somebody feel sick on home it was difficult to bring the children to the IP for polio drops 4. Migrating and tribal population usually do not bring their children for polio drops 3. Those who are not at home are not able to come 6. People who think that because of pulse polio they may get problems in future 7. Wrong beliefs about polio drops 2. In slum areas those mothers who go out for work do not bring their children. They say we go out for work we do not have any time 8. Those who gave immunization in routine high class families 83 Qualifiers for Semi-quantitative expression of Observations 84 Writing a report
Develop an outline for report
Review all field-notes and organize along identified domains in conformity with report outline
Compare across stakeholder categories if needed
Compare results of other qualitative methods with these findings
85 (No Transcript) 86 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION 87 What is Focus Group Discussion
Focus group discussions are group discussions with a small group of individuals from a well defined target population on pre-selected topics that rely on interaction between group members under the guidance of a trained facilitator. Each participant is stimulated by the comments of others and in turn stimulate them.
88 What is Focus Group Discussion
It is a qualitative method which helps to find out the How Why of human behaviour
It can provide insight into how a group thinks about an issue the range of opinions and ideas and the inconsistencies and variations that exist in a particular community in terms of beliefs and their experiences practices
89 F.G.D.s are useful for
Obtaining a range of perceptions opinions or beliefs about an issue
Gathering exploratory data to be used in future research Eg. Local names for diseases local pattern of healthcare seeking
Hypothesis generating
Assist in explaining and illustrating results of a quantitative survey
90 FGDs are useful for
Intervention programmes- To identify various social or cultural factors that need to be taken into account in the design and implementation of the programme
Ongoing assessment of programmes or as an evaluation tool
Obtaining feed back for the cross cultural adaptation of materials.
As a means of validating findings obtained by other means (Triangulation)
As a Rapid Assessment Procedure for getting quick results
91 Key Considerations
The topic should is narrowly focused
Selection of participants is also focused by targeting individuals who meet specific criteria
Topic should be of interest to both the investigator and respondents.
The emphasis should be on interaction between or among the group members.
92 Key considerations
A set of detailed guidelines designed to generate discussion of concepts and ideas
A trained moderator and a note taker
Recording the discussion to permit later analysis of the result
93 Designing a Focus Group Discussion
Setting the objectives
Determine the target population
Plan the number of of sessions
Follow the guidelines regarding selection of participants role of moderator/facilitator etc
Developing F.G.D.guide
Conducting F.G.D.
Analysis and interpretation of results
94 Setting the objectives
Define the problem and decide on the issues or areas you want to explore
Decide on how the information be used Is this the only method to gather information or will it be used with other methods
For eg. Are they to supplement quantitative data used to define pretest questionnaires
95 Selecting the Target group
Determine who can provide the information you require and what characteristics define the individuals to be participated
Often incorporate different subsets with potentially contrasting views or experiences concerning the issues under investigation
Eg. Rural Vs Urban and Adolescents Vs Elderly
96 Number of sessions
Decide on the no. of sessions to be held
Number of sessions is based on
Resources (time and money)
Types of different groups targeted
Comparisons you wish to stress in the analysis.
97 GUIDELINES FOR F. G. D .s 98 Group composition
The composition should be homogeneous.
Participants with different backgrounds and experience restrict the openness of discussion
Representative of the population in which the investigator is interested.
Ideally efforts may be made to select people who do not know each other personally.
Exclude people previously participated in a FGD on the same subject.
99 Number of people per Group
The number of participants should range between six to ten.
Small group lt6 can be dominated by one person and variation of thought and queries remain restricted.
Large group gt12 does not provide chance to all participants and often give way for small group formation.
100 Venue
Any place people can easily go.
Acceptable and convenient to the participants
Any place where 6 to 10 people can be seated.
Should not be held in open place (Guard against unwarranted intrusions)
101 Seating Arrangements
Best is to have participants in a circular fashion.
Each participant should have the provision to see all other participants.
Each one should feel physically and psychologically comfortable.
102 How many groups
Run FGs until you dont hear anything new Redundancy of information. Not over sample
Sampling and Recruitment
Either random or convenient sampling .
Usually recruited through informal networks.
Make sure representative ness of study population
103 Focus Group Guide
A flexible unstructured interview guide is used to conduct the discussion.
keep the questions open- ended Eg. How do you feel about
Questions should seek to discover the prevailing attitudes of the community not just those of the group.
Start with general question and then get more specific as the session progress. ( funnelling effect)
The number of items in the guide should not exceed 6 or 7.
The guide must be phrased in simple language using local terminology.
104 Personal Qualities of Moderator
Adequate knowledge on background information about the topic and experience in conducting FGD
Good listening skills
Leadership skills
Relationship with the participants
Patience and flexibility
Clothing
105 Role of Moderator
Orient the group in a proper manner.
Put forth issues / sub issues in appropriate questions.
Create a non-judgmental environment in which group members feel free to express.
Encourage interaction between participants.
Encourage quiet participants to speak up and quieten garrulous talkers.
106 Role of Moderator (contd.)
Guide the direction of discussion so that it does not wander too far from the designated focus.
Pace the discussion appropriate for the participant
Subtly control the time allotted to each question and to the entire discussion.
107 Role of the Recorder
Primarily an observer tape record the session.
Observe the nature of interaction record non-verbal communication level of consensus
Should know what type of data she/he is expected to collect.
If facilitator has omitted a question from the guide the recorder can point them out.
Identify the speakers. Note down the first few words every time a new person speaks and make brief notes of the content
108 Sociogram
Diagrammatic representation of entire session of FGD
Offers a useful method of conceptualising group dynamics drawing comparisons between focus groups reflecting on moderating technique
109 CONDUCTING FGD 110 Warming-up
Greet the participant as they arrive
Create a warm and friendly environment to build the rapport and gain their confidence
Speak casual-talk general non-controversial subjects of mutual interest
Self introduction Socio-demographic details can be collected
Seek verbal consent and permission for using tape recorder
111 Beginning the FGD
Explain purpose of study and its utility.
Spell out the ground rules of FGD
Clarify that it is not a question answer session but a discussion.
Ensure confidentiality of their views.
Emphasis that there is no right and wrong answers.
112 Beginning the FGD
Encourage participants to talk freely and should even express contradictory /opposite views
Tell them that they should speak clearly one at a time avoid interrupting one another
Start with generic topic before coming to specific area of enquiry
113 Discussion Issues Asking questions
Initiate discussion by suitably framing the issues as statements
Guide the discussion by logically steering the issues. Picking up responses and probing further can be done
Avoid questions eliciting Yes/ No answer
Make sure not to leave any issue
114 Encouraging controlling the discussion
Atmosphere Warm friendly and non-judgemental
Pauses and prompts
- Pausing allow to think more on the topic but should not last more than five seconds
-Establishing eye contact nodding and other gestures encourage people to talk
-Verbal prompts I see keep onmmm uh-huh
115 Encouraging discussion (contd)
The probe Encourage speaker to give more information
-Prepare probes for each question
-Use probes where ever needed during discussion eg. Could you explain further Would you give an example
Rephrasing- A question can be rephrased using different words not diluting the issue
116 Encouraging the discussion
Clarification- To clarify an issuefacilitator can request Can you repeat it or Please elaborate
Reorientation-Facilitator use participants response to restate the question for another participant
Hypothetical Question- Suppose the baby develops high fever what would you do
117 Dealing with Specific individuals
Dominant participant.
Facilitator should avoid eye contact. Facilitator can change the subject. If the said strategies failed the facilitator can politely request that the others be allowed to speak.
The Expert
Can offer lot of useful information but should not be allowed to take over and prevent others from speaking
Reluctant participant
Facilitator should have more eye contact.
Facilitator can ask the person to comment on what another person has said or to summarize what the group has discussed.
118 Dealing with problems during FGD
Answering one by one-Explain once more that discussion among participants are crucial
Participant bring small child If dont disrupt let him/her remain
Whether the facilitator lost control of the meeting.
How the discussion is concluded
Should use quotation marks to indicate participants words.
121 Closing the discussion
Inform participants that discussion is going to end and if they have any query or want to contribute they can do.
Thank them for their cooperation and valuable comments.
Assure the participants that under no circumstances the discussion would prove counter productive to the interest of the group
During this debriefing period tape recorder should remain on valuable comments are some times made at this time.
122 Strengths of Focus Groups
Lot of information - quickly less costly
Excellent in obtaining information from illiterate communities
Flexibility- discover attitudes and opinions that might not be revealed otherwise
Well accepted by the community
If simple issues- managed by people not trained in qualitative research methods
Most valuable when used in conjunction with other quantitative information
123 Limitations of Focus groups
Not suitable for arriving at generalizable conclusions
Quality of information depends heavily on moderator skills
Limited value in exploring complex beliefs
Number of questions are limited
Sensitive and personal issues-Socially acceptable responses unless put as general questions
124 (No Transcript) 125 ANALYSISAND INTERPRETATION 126
Data source for analysis
Debriefings
Quick and easy way of summarizing data immediately after the field work.
Notes
Notes and comments of both verbal and non verbal information compiled by the moderator and observer.
Transcripts
Transcribing is very demanding
Translation from Local Language if necessary
Contd. 127 Analysis of Transcripts
Two approaches
Systematic coding using content analysis
Ethnographic Summary
Transcript analysis soon after transcripts available
- Not after completion of all FGDs.
Edit Transcript
- Removing sections poorly transcribed or do not make sense
128 Analysis of FGD Contd
Free-listing
Read the transcript with objectives fresh in mind. Look for major opinions and attitude.
Evolving Domains
Look for patterns and themes evolving from the data
Coding
Marking the transcripts using codes
Summarizing
Sorting the coded transcripts and summarize.
129 Analysis of FGD
Log Book (Overview grid)
Useful summarizing tool.
Enable to find out how many times an issue was discussed across all the Focus Groups as well as how many times a response was given.
Try to Avoid quantification while summarizing
Semi quantification can be done with groups as unit of analysis.
Comparison can be done across different categories of stakeholders
130 EXAMPLE OF A LOG BOOK ON OVERUSE OF ANTIBIOTICS 131 ETHNOGRAPHIC SUMMARY The researcher undertakes repeated readings of the transcript until they feel confident they understand the underlying meaning being presented. Quotations are used to illustrate the key points and again are followed or preceded by narrative explanation. 132
Writing the report
Using Log book codes from transcripts observers notes as well as debriefing notes.
Present findings according to topics
Use quotations to illustrate strongly expressed thoughts beliefs and emotions
Describe overall consensus of the group Majority minority feelings as well as differences by characteristics of respondents.
Common style is to say The majority of participants said .. Or few of them..
133
Interpretation
Interpretation involved explaining your findings in terms of the problem or question you want to answer.
The format of FGD report should consist of three parts
1. Description of setting and participants.
2. Discussion of findings.
3. Conclusion and recommendations.
134 (No Transcript) 135 (No Transcript) 136 OBSERVATION 137 Observation
Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study
It is a technique that involves directly observing behaviour with the purpose of describing it .
To observe means to examine an object an individual group of people or an event with all of the senses in order to describe it. It includes seeing hearing and perceiving.
138 Observation (contd)
It is a method to collect firsthand data on programme processes or behaviours being studied-what people actually do
Opportunity to collect data on a wide range of behaviours to capture a great variety of interactions to openly explore a topic
Holistic perspective understanding of the context within which it operates
139 Scientific Observation
Serves a formulated research purpose
Planned deliberately
Recorded systematically
Subject to checks and controls on validity and reliability
Validity is assessed by examining how well the observations agree with alternative measures of the same construct
Reliability entails consistency and freedom from measurement error
140 OBSERVATION Non-participant
Participant
Structured Unstructured
events planed in advance
use of observational guide
No predetermined guide
141 Participant Observation
Observer is part of the phenomenon or group which is observed
Roots in ethnographic research-immerse in the culture to see how people respond to situations how they organise their lives learning what is meaningful in their lives
See things from people perspective and a deeper understanding of them
142 Participant Observation
Often conduct casual informal interviews while watching and recording to increase understanding
Level of participation depends upon the nature of study desired outcome
Requires lengthy period of engagement in the field
The observed may not be aware of the researcher purpose
143 Participant Observation-Uses
Useful in understanding basic values behaviour associated with particular actions
Discover the relationship between knowledge attitude and practice
Observer will be able to record context which gives meaning to the observed behaviour and heard statements
Can be effectively combined with other methods
144 Participant Observation-Demerits
Narrows the range of observation
To the extent that observer participates emotionally the objectivity is lost
Participation can interfere with observation and recording.
Time consuming
Research skills essential
145 Non-participant Observation
Systematically observing and documenting something in its natural setting
Silent observers
Researcher watches records information about people or event without intruding into the scene
Look for many things and describe the situations at many different levels
Ethical issues need to be addressed
No rule as to how many- spread observations over time
146 Un- structured Observations
Unstructured observation involves broadly focussed encounters without a pre-determined guide
Data primarily used for descriptive accounts
More of exploratory in nature
147 Structured Observation
Observes events that have been planned in advance
Validate data obtained from other methods
Standardization of observational technique
Typified by clear and explicit decisions on what how and when to observe (Persons/locations duration of observations time to conduct frequency)
Can be quantified but with little contextual description
148 What is to be observed
Selection criteria - Depends on the purpose of the study
Sampling purposive Sampling
Sources of information consider what is to be observed who is the foci of attention where will the observation take place and what is the most appropriate recording system
149 Observer characteristics
Observer qualities Familiarity with cultural background of people being observed
Knowledge of social research technique
Observers role unobtrusive interest in the events being observed
Training to enable them take note of un-forseen events share study objectives how to conduct and how to deal with field problems
150 Observation Guide
Issues to be observed prepared in advance based on the research objectives
Inputs from observers / observers familiar with the issues in the study
Goal oriented and suitable to local condition
The items should appear in logical grouping and in the order in which to observe them
151 Selection of Site
Prior site selection and permission from authorities
No of observation sites availability accessibility and study specific
Date and time- Remember that observations are activity linked
No of observations per site - depend upon the purpose of study
152 Conduct the observation
Inform and explain your presence
Gain confidence and cooperation of subjects
Remain detached yet involved with the group
Take note of the observation situations and also of non-verbal communication
Avoid making extensive notes during observation
153 Documentation in Observation technique
Use all senses to describe the setting-physical and social environment non-verbal communication
Field notes- include observation notes feelings and reflections
Direct quotations
Technological tools-Tape recorder camera Laptop etc.
154 Analysis and Report Writing
Categorization of data Qualitative part
Coding Quantitative aspects and categorized data
Summarizing Report as percentages and / or in a narrative style depending on data
Findings combined with other methods to make a complete report
155 Advantages Disadvantages
Advantages
Recording in context possibility of cross check
Basic to other more systematic research
Emic perspective
Discover the relationship between K A and P
Opportunity for identifying unanticipated outcome
Disadvantages
Ideally long periods of intense field work
Local language fluency
Replicality a problem
Difficult to quantify
No use in studying past event or activity
Observer bias
Change in behaviour
156 Some problems and solutions
Observer bias
Questionable reliability
Observer may influence behaviour
Actins can only be observed-not thinking
Several researchers make observations
Systematically repeat observations
Repeat observations. Spent time to reduce self-consciousness
Mix with other methods like interview
157 Thank You 158 Assessing the quality of qualitative research
Strategies to ensure rigour systematic research design data collection interpretation and communication techniques
Create an account of method and data which can stand up to independent scrutiny
Produce coherent explanation of the phenomena under scrutiny
159 Ensuring reliability
Maintain record of interviews and observations
Document entire processes
Develop coding framework
Presence of audio or video tapes provides opportunities for analysis by independent observers
160 Safeguarding Validity
Internal Validity
Quan Measuring what you intend to measure
Qual Findings need to reflect the truth
External validity
- Quan Generalizability through stat inference
- Qual Transferability through understanding of relationship between context and findings
161 Triangulation
Main research tool researchers themselves
Subjective nature of data can open it to criticism
Method to enhance quality of data through triangulation data researcher combining methods
162 Assessing Trustworthiness of Findings
Can be assessed by
Careful documentation of research process
Independent replication of research process
Comparison with findings with previous research
Triangulation
163 Assessing Trustworthiness Contd..
Consistency checks Independent coder given research objectives categories and their description without raw text
Then given a sample of raw text and asked to assign section of text from which initial categories where developed.
164 Assessing Trustworthiness Contd..
Stake holder check Participants service providers funding agencies comment on categories or interpretations made
165 Qualitative data analysis software
QDA does not completely analyze data
A tool that supports the process of qualitative data analysis
Large volume of data can be structured very quickly and clearly presented
Helps the researcher in searching texts memos or coded passage easily
166 Advantages of QDA software
Speed
Great flexibility
Complex analysis becomes feasible
Analysis can be more systematic
Easy to handle large amount of data
Increases the status and believability
167 Disadvantages
Danger of loosing touch with data
We can perform quick but irrelevant analysis
High degrees of complexity can lead to poor manageability
Can lead to dull and meaningless analysis result
168 QDA software packages
Text Base Beta
CDC-EZtext
Atlas-ti
NUDIST
nVivo
The Ethnograph
169 (No Transcript)
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