Nora Miller, Fairfield Middle School

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Pedagogical Content Knowledge

• Nora Miller, Fairfield Middle School
• Dusty Jones, Simon Kenton High School
• Stephanie Simmons, Aiken University High School

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(Attributed to Anais Nin, French-born American
writer, 1903-1977.)

• "We don't see things as they are, we see things
  as we are."

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Overview

• Define pedagogy
• Steps to applying pedagogy
• Summary
• Checklist of Observable Behaviors
• VAK (personality testing)
• Gardners Multiple Intelligence Test (adult)
• Getting to know your students
• Identifying misconceptions
• Differentiated learning
• Getting students to work

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• Definition
• Quite simply put pedagogy is the science of
  teaching.
• Pedagogical content knowledge is knowing how to
  teach a particular subject of which one had a
  great deal of knowledge.
• For example someone with an education degree
  teaches math, then goes back to college and gets
  a masters degree in math. One would say that
  person if well versed in the area of math.

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Summary

• To teach all students according to todays
  standards, teachers need to
• understand subject matter
• help students create useful cognitive maps
• relate one idea to another
• address misconceptions
• Teachers need to see how ideas connect across
  fields and to everyday life. This kind of
  understanding provides a foundation for
  pedagogical content knowledge that enables
  teachers to make ideas accessible to others
  (Shulman, 1987).

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Summary Cont.

• Shulman (1986) introduced the phrase pedagogical
  content knowledge and sparked a whole new wave of
  education.
• In Shulman's theoretical framework, teachers need
  to master two types of knowledge (a) content,
  also known as "deep" knowledge of the subject
  itself, and (b) knowledge of the curricular
  development.

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Your take on it.

• How do you or your colleagues define the
  components of pedagogical content knowledge?
• How do you teach your content?

• Lecture

• Lecture/discussion

• Hands on

• Inquiry

• Demonstration

• Cooperative Learning

• What are some strengths or limitations of these
  methods?

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A mix of content and consideration

• Standards (National and State)
• All teachers need to consider the state and
  national standards in developing their
  curriculum.
• Some schools may already have your curriculum
  made out for you.
• Dont be afraid to experiment with it and make it
  your own. Learn from your mistakes.
• Consider the needs of the students when teaching
  your content.

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Checklist of Observable Behaviors
___ 1. Comprehension To teach is to
understand

•         ___ Purposes            ___
  Subject-matter structures            ___ Ideas
  within and outside the
  discipline

For instance, a fifth grade teacher starts her
lesson about friction, mass, and force by
reminding her students what they studied last
class to help them understand that they will add
more information to their prior knowledge. The
teacher tells the students that the first unit
discussed was on motion and the second unit was
on friction. Before introducing them to the third
new unit about force, the teacher checks for
students' understanding of the previous units. 
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___ 2. Transformation Comprehended ideas must
be transformed in           some manner if they
are to be taught.  Transformations          requi
re some combinations or ordering of the
following           processes 

• ___ Preparation (of the given text material)
• ___ Representation of the ideas in the form of
  analogies, metaphors 
• ___ Instructional selections from among an array
  of teaching methods and model
• ___ Adaptation to the characteristics of the
  students
• ___ Tailoring the adaptations to the specific
  students in the classroom

She asks the students to determine if it would
take more force to push her or a kindergarten
student in a swing. She points out that it is
easier to push someone once they are in motion. 
The teacher then asks the students who would be
easier to stop once they were in motion herself
or the kindergarten student?  She relates their
answers to the time it takes large trucks to
stop on a highway compared to compact cars. 
Because several of the students are school
crossing guards, the teacher personalizes her
analogy by discussing what they learned in their
crossing guard training about the force of
different-sized vehicles.
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___ 3. Instruction  The variety of teaching acts
includes the following

• ___ Management            ___
  Presentations            ___ Interactions       
       ___ Group work            ___
  Discipline            ___ Humor            ___
  Questioning            ___ Discovery and inquiry
  instruction

For the same lesson, the teacher uses an
instructional method that incorporates group
work. The students are engaged in cooperative
learning in groups of three, in which each of
them has to take care of a physical component of
an experiment. For instance, while doing the
experiment, one student records the mass, the
second one the distance, and the third one the
force.  In this way, the teacher assures
interaction between students, peer tutoring, and
communication, which definitely increases
students learning. 
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• ___ 4. Evaluation This process ensures that the
  teacher checks for understanding and
  misunderstanding during interactive teaching. As
  a result, the teacher evaluates his or her own
  performance and makes adjustments for experience.

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The same teacher uses an ongoing strategy of
evaluation and performance assessment. This
assessment serves as an instructional tool to
help teachers meet students needs.  Using the
evaluation form, the teacher continually checks
students' understanding of the subject
matter.The evaluation form includes a chart
divided into two sections to assess problem
solving and communication.  The students receive
from 0-3 points for their efforts.  Here is how
the teacher would assess student skills
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• ___5. Reflection This process includes a series
  of steps, including reviewing, reconstructing,
  reenacting, and critically analyzing ones
  teaching to improve.

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This example shows a student teachers inner
thoughts and reflections on her experiences as a
teacher.

• My cooperating teacher has the gift of gab.  It
  seems that most of the other excellent teachers I
  have worked with also have this gift.  This gift
  can be very important in the classroom because it
  brings learning to the level of the children. 
  Connecting book facts to real life situations
  empowers kids and helps build true knowledge. 
  Stories or anecdotes relating to the topic of
  study help bridge the gap between school life and
  outside of school life.  Children begin to see
  that their daily experiences are important and
  have connections to what they learn in school.  
•  At this point in my teaching career, I stay
  right on track and often avoid branching out
  using stories related to the subject of study.  I
  do include further discussion and exploration of
  all subjects, but I have never been a
  storyteller.  This is something I suppose I will
  learn over time. As I have more and more
  experiences and as I see more and more
  connections between everyday life and the
  curriculum I am teaching I hope that I will begin
  to provide my students with a more personal
  learning experience through the use of stories
  which might help them see parallels in their
  lives and their learning (Naumann, 1997a).

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• ___6. New comprehensions The expectation is that
  through acts of teaching the teacher achieves a
  new understanding of purposes, subject matter,
  students, teaching, and self.

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The following example shows how a teacher
acquires new meanings from their teaching
experiences to help in their future teaching
career.

• One of the most valuable lessons I learned is the
  importance of doing everything one step at a
  time, slowly.  Luckily, I learned this my first
  day on the job.  I was trying to help the fourth
  graders organize their binders according to
  classroom policy.  I whipped right through my
  directions and explanations.  The kids just
  didnt get it.  It was at this time that I began
  to realize how the mind of a 9-year-old works so
  differently from my own 25-year-old mind.  
• Children cant remember a list of directions.
  They must have them written down so they can go
  back and be able to reread them.  Often if
  children are told how to do something, they will
  be unable to complete the task unless they are
  shown how to do it.  
• Quickly, I learned that in order for these
  children to accomplish just about anything, it
  was necessary to provide them with very detailed
  instructions and often step-by-step guidance. It
  was a revelation for me to realize that these
  kids dont use their minds to reason things
  through but rather they wait to be told how to do
  something.  Their world is very black and white.
  They often can only see one way of doing things,
  the right way. (Naumann, 1997b)

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kinesthetic
visual

• VAK learning styles model

auditory
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• The VAK learning styles model and related VAK
  tests (and for that matter the Multiple
  Intelligences concepts) offer reasonably simple
  and accessible methods to understand and explain
  people's preferred ways to learn.
• Occasionally well-intentioned people will write
  that the use of such models and tests can be
  problematical. This is true of course of any tool
  if undue reliance is placed on the methodology,
  or if the results of tests are treated as
  absolute and exclusive of other styles and
  considerations in the overall mix of a person's
  personality and needs.
• As with any methodology or tool, use VAK and
  other learning styles concepts with care. The
  concepts are an aid, not a dogma to be followed
  and applied rigidly.

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• The VAK multi-sensory approach to learning and
  teaching was originally concerned with the
  teaching of dyslexic children and other learners
  for whom conventional teaching methods were not
  effective.
• The early VAK specialists recognized that people
  learn in different ways as a very simple
  example, a child who could not easily learn words
  and letters by reading (visually) might for
  instance learn more easily by tracing letter
  shapes with their finger (kinesthetic).
• The VAK theory is a favorite of the accelerated
  learning community, and continues to feature -
  although not nearly as strongly as it should do -
  in the teaching and education of young people.
• The Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic learning styles
  model does not overlay Gardner's multiple
  intelligences rather the VAK model provides a
  different perspective for understanding and
  explaining a person's preferred or dominant
  thinking and learning style, and strengths.
  Gardner's theory is one way of looking at
  thinking styles VAK is another.

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According to the VAK model, most people
possess a dominant or preferred learning style,
however some people have a mixed and evenly
balanced blend of the three styles.

• The VAK learning styles model provides a very
  easy and quick reference inventory by which to
  assess people's preferred learning styles, and
  then most importantly, to design learning methods
  and experiences that match people's preferences
• Visual learning style involves the use of seen or
  observed things, including pictures, diagrams,
  demonstrations, displays, handouts, films,
  flip-chart, etc.
• Auditory learning style involves the transfer of
  information through listening to the spoken
  word, of self or others, of sounds and noises.
• Kinesthetic learning involves physical experience
  - touching, feeling, holding, doing, practical
  hands-on experiences.

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• However you calculate the totals, ensure you use
  the chosen method consistently throughout the
  questionnaire.
• (Rank each row 1-3, 3 being the most and 1 the
  least preferred.)
• The total scores for each style indicate your
  relative preferred learning style or styles.
• There are no right or wrong answers.
• Some people have very strong preferences, even
  to the extent that they have little or no
  preference in one or two of the styles. Other
  people have more evenly balanced preferences,
  with no particularly strong style.
• The point is simply to try to understand as much
  as you can about yourself and your strengths
  (your preferred style or styles), and then make
  best use of learning methods which suit your
  strengths (your preferred style or styles).

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VAK The short and dirty version

• Here are some common indicators, which can be
  converted into a questionnaire very easily.
• Ask the person to score each statement and then
  total each column to indicate learning style
  dominance.
• There are no right and wrong answers.
• Circle ONLY the most preferred item in each row
  and add up how many in each column.

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Getting to know your students

• Not all students learn the same way
• Gardner's Multiple intelligences (adult)
• Linguistic
• Logical/Mathematical
• Musical
• Body-Kinesthetic
• Spatial-Visual
• Interpersonal
• Intrapersonal

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Linguistic

• Individuals like words and language,
  interpretation and explanation of ideas and
  information via language, understands
  relationship between communication and meaning
• Preferred learning style, words and language
• Responds to reading writing, and background
  research

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Logical/Mathematical

• Logical thinking, detecting patterns, scientific
  reasoning and deduction analyze problems,
  perform mathematical calculations
• Preferred learning style, numbers and logic
• Very orderly, concise thinking, will memorize
  step by step in a logical order.

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Musical

• Musical ability, awareness, appreciation and use
  of sound recognition of tonal and rhythmic
  patterns, understands relationship between sound
  and feeling
• Prefers to learn using music, sounds, rhythm
• Creative, responds to rhythms or songs, learns
  better by making songs about content to help
  memorize.

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Body-Kinesthetic

• Body movement control, manual dexterity, physical
  agility and balance eye and body coordination
• Prefers to learn using physical experience and
  movement, touch and feel
• Responds to more hands on activities, learns by
  doing rather than watching.

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Spatial-Visual

• Visual and spatial perception interpretation and
  creation of visual images pictorial imagination
  and expression
• Prefers to learn using pictures, shapes, images,
  3D space
• Responds to diagrams, and visuals

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Interpersonal

• Perception of other people's feelings ability to
  relate to others understands the relationships
  between people and their situations, including
  other people
• Learns better with human contact, communications,
  cooperation, teamwork
• Prefers to work in teams, they may learn more and
  recall better by teaching a concept to another
  student.

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Intrapersonal

• Self-awareness, personal cognizance, personal
  objectivity, the capability to understand oneself
• Learns through self-reflection, self-discovery
• May prefer to work alone

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Identifying your students

• By identifying ways in which your student learn
  better will help make your lessons more
  effective.
• Trying to vary your teaching styles will keep
  your students interested as well as reaching as
  many of them that you can.
• Making connections with your students is key.
• Students may exhibit more than one of the
  intelligences.

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Misconceptions

• While you get to know your student you need to
  gather information on any misconceptions they may
  have in your content area.
• Example When will I use this in my life?

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Knowing your students

• By getting to know your students you can better
  serve the content need they are required to
  learn.
• You can differentiate your teaching by using
  several tricks.
• PowerPoint lectures with guided notes
• Using diagrams and examples to touch on key
  concepts
• Hands on activities

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Knowing your Students

• By knowing your students you can better tailor
  your lessons to reach as many of them as you can.
• You can also relate concepts to your students
• It will handle the When will I use this factor
• Having a one on one connection with as many of
  your students as you can could increase the
  number of students participating resulting in a
  low number of failures.

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Teaching is like Golf

• Every year you have to get to know a new set of
  students
• Once you feel that you finally have a handle of
  both the content and the students the year is
  almost up and you have to start over again.
• It takes just one student to excel or say I
  really learned a lot or this was my favorite
  class.

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DIFFERENTIATED LEARNING

• Differentiation gets teachers away from the one
  size fits all which really fits no one.
• It encourages students to become more responsible
  for their own learning, and to recognize and use
  their own strengths, helping them become lifelong
  learners.

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DIFFERENTIATED LEARNING

• IT IS A PHILOSOPHY THAT INCLUDES
• Different ways to take in the information
• Differing amounts of time to complete work
• Different approaches due to cultural background
  or language acquisition
• Different levels of learning
• Different assignments
• Different means to assess what has been learned

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DIFFERENTIATED LEARNING

• Four Keys to differentiating curriculum are
• Flexibility
• Choices
• Planning
• Resources

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DIFFERENTIATED LEARNING

• Differentiated curriculum provides students with
  several different options for learning, it
  includes
• Different ways to learn the information
• Different amounts of time to complete work
• Different approaches to learning because of
  cultural background or language acquisition
• Different levels of learning
• Different assignments for students in the same
  classroom
• Different means to assess what has been learned

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DIFFERENTIATED LEARNING

• Strategies for Differentiated Instruction
• Flexible Grouping Grouping students in a
  variety of ways depending on the classroom
  activity and desired learning outcomes.
• Curriculum Compacting Process where students
  are pretested (or otherwise assessed) for mastery
  and those who already know the material are
  allowed to pursue another activity.

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DIFFERENTIATED LEARNING

• Learning Contract Agreement between student and
  teacher which allows the student to work on tasks
  at an agreed upon time
• Independent Study Process for in-depth study of
  an area of interest.
• Tiered Assignments Multiple learning activities
  based on the same learning objectives, standards
  and outcomes.

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DIFFERENTIATED LEARNING

• Anchoring Activities Students may become
  resident experts in an area of particular
  interest and are given class time to study this
  area in depth.

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DIFFERENTIATED LEARNING
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DIFFERENTIATED LEARNING
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References

• Shulman,  L. ( 1987).  Knowledge and teaching
  Foundations of the new reform.  Harvard
  Educational Review, 57(1), 1-22.
• http//www.intime.uni.edu/model/teacher/teac2.html
  Definition
• http//www.businessballs.com/
• http//www.cynical-c.com/archives/000575.html
• Heller, J.I., Daehler, K.R., Shinorhara, M.,
  Kaskowitz, S.R. (2004). Fostering Pedagogical
  Content Knowledge about electric Circuits through
  Case-Based Professional Development. Paper
  presented at the annual meeting of the National
  Association ofr Research in Science Teaching,
  Vancouver, April 2004.
• Loughran, J. Mulhall, P., Berry, A. (2004). In
  search of Pedagogical content Knowledge in
  Science Ways of Articulating and documenting
  Professional Practice. Journal of Research in
  Science Teaching, 41 (4), 370-391.
• Coil, C. (2004). Standards Based Activities
  and Assessment for the Differentiated Classroom.
• Coil, C. (2000). Teaching Tools for the 21st
  Century.

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