Chapter 4 MARKETBASED VALUATION: PRICE MULTIPLES

1
Chapter 4MARKET-BASED VALUATION PRICE MULTIPLES
2
Introduction

• Price multiples are ratios of a stocks market
  price to some measure of value per share. A price
  multiple summarizes in a single number a
  valuation relationship to a familiar quantity
  such as earnings, sales, or book value per share.
  
• Momentum indicators relate either price or a
  fundamental (such as earnings) to the time series
  of their own past values, or in some cases to
  their expected value.

3
Organization of chapter 4

• Section 2--the economic context of price
  multiples.
• Section 3--price-to-earnings (P/E) multiples
• Section 4--price-to-book (P/B) multiples
• Section 5--price-to-sales (P/S) multiples
• Section 6--price-to-cash flow (P/CF) multiples.
• Section 7--the ratio of enterprise value to
  EBITDA (enterprise value is the total market
  value of all sources of financing including
  common stock)

• Section 8--Because the ratio of price to
  dividends is not defined for stocks that do not
  pay dividends, we discuss valuation in terms of
  dividend yield (D/P)
• Section 9--issues in using price multiples
  internationally
• Section 10--momentum valuation indicators
• Section 11--Some practical aspects of using
  valuation indicators in investment management
• Section 12--summary

4
Method of comparables

• The method of comparables involves using a price
  multiple to evaluate whether an asset is
  relatively fairly valued, relatively undervalued,
  or relatively overvalued in relation to a
  benchmark value of the multiple.
• Choices for the benchmark value of a multiple
  include the multiple of a closely matched
  individual stock and the average or median value
  of the multiple for the stocks peer group of
  companies or industry.

5
Method of comparables

• The economic rationale underlying the method of
  comparables is the law of one pricethe economic
  principle that two identical assets should sell
  at the same price.
• The method of comparables is perhaps the most
  widely used approach for analysts reporting
  valuation judgments on the basis of price
  multiples.
• If we may find that an asset is undervalued
  relative to a comparison asset or group of
  assets, and we may expect the asset to outperform
  the comparison asset or assets on a relative
  basis.
• However, if the comparison asset or assets
  themselves are not efficiently priced, the stock
  may not be undervaluedit could be fairly valued
  or even overvalued (on an absolute basis).

6
Method based on forecasted fundamentals

• A price multiple can be related to fundamentals
  through a DCF model.
• An example in Chapter 2 we explained the
  priceearnings ratio in terms of perhaps the
  simplest DCF model, the Gordon growth dividend
  discount model.

7
Justified price multiple

• A justified price multiple for the stock is the
  estimated fair value of that multiple.
• We can justify a multiple based on the method of
  comparables or the method based on forecasted
  fundamentals.
• The justified price multiple is also called the
  warranted price multiple or the intrinsic price
  multiple.

8
The price/earnings approach

• In the first edition of Security Analysis,
  Benjamin Graham and David L. Dodd (1934)
  described common stock valuation based on
  priceearnings ratios as the standard method of
  that era.
• The priceearnings (P/E) ratio is still the most
  familiar valuation measure today.
• Our discussion
• rationales offered by analysts for its use, as
  well as possible drawbacks.
• two chief variations of the P/E, the trailing P/E
  and the leading P/E.
• Accounting issues Market price is definitely
  determinable and presents no special problems of
  interpretation. However, the denominator,
  earnings per share, is based on the complex rules
  of accrual accounting and does present important
  issues of interpretation. There are several
  accounting issues, as well as adjustments
  analysts can make to obtain more meaningful
  priceearnings ratios.

9
Rationales for the use of P/E ratios

• Earning power is a chief driver of investment
  value. Earnings per share (EPS), the denominator
  of the priceearnings ratio, is perhaps the chief
  focus of security analysts attention.
• The priceearnings ratio is widely recognized and
  used by investors.
• Differences in priceearnings ratios may be
  related to differences in long-run average
  returns, according to empirical research.

10
Drawbacks to P/E ratios

• Drawbacks based on nature of EPS.
• EPS can be negative. The P/E ratio does not make
  economic sense with a negative denominator.
• The components of earnings that are on-going or
  recurrent are most important in determining
  intrinsic value. However, earnings often have
  volatile, transient components, making the
  analysts task difficult.
• Management can exercise its discretion within
  allowable accounting practices to distort
  earnings per share as an accurate reflection of
  economic performance. Distortions can affect the
  comparability of P/E ratios across companies.

11
Accounting issues with P/E ratios

• In calculating a P/E ratio, the current price for
  publicly traded companies is generally easily
  obtained and unambiguous.
• Determining the earnings figure to be used in the
  denominator, however, is not as straightforward.
  Two issues are
• the time horizon over which earnings are
  measured, which results in two chief alternative
  definitions of the priceearnings ratio and
• adjustments to accounting earnings that the
  analyst may make so that P/Es are comparable
  across companies.

12
Trailing and leading P/Es

• The two chief definitions of P/E are trailing P/E
  and leading P/E.
• The trailing P/E (sometimes referred to as
  current P/E) of a stock is the current market
  price of the stock divided by the most recent
  four quarters earnings per share. The EPS in
  such calculations are sometimes referred to as
  trailing twelve months (TTM) EPS. Trailing P/E is
  the priceearnings ratio published in stock
  listings of financial newspapers.
• The leading P/E (also called the forward P/E or
  the prospective P/E) is calculated by dividing
  the current price by next years expected
  earnings.
• First Call/Thomson Financial reports as the
  current P/E market price divided by the last
  reported annual earnings per share. Value Line
  reports as the P/E market price divided by the
  sum of the preceding two quarters trailing
  earnings and the next two quarters expected
  earnings.

13
Issues with trailing P/Es

• When calculating a P/E ratio using trailing
  earnings, care must be taken in determining the
  EPS number. The issues include
• transitory, nonrecurring components of earnings
  that are company-specific
• transitory components of earnings due to
  cyclicality (business or industry cyclicality)
• differences in accounting methods and
• potential dilution of earnings per share.

14
Cyclicality of P/Es

• Because of cyclic effects, the most recent four
  quarters of earnings may not accurately reflect
  the average or long-term earnings power of the
  business, particularly for cyclical
  businessesbusinesses with high sensitivity to
  business or industry cycle influences. Trailing
  earnings per share for such stocks are often
  depressed or negative at the bottom of the cycle
  and unusually high at the top of the cycle.
• Empirically, P/Es for cyclical companies are
  often highly volatile over a cycle without any
  change in business prospects high P/Es on
  depressed EPS at the bottom of the cycle and low
  P/Es on unusually high EPS at the top of the
  cycle, a countercyclical property of P/Es known
  as the Molodovsky effect. Named after Nicholas
  Molodovsky who wrote on this in the 1950s. P/Es
  may be negatively related to the recent earnings
  growth rate but positively related to anticipated
  future growth rate, because of expected rebounds
  in earnings.

15
Normalized P/Es

• Nomalized EPS can be used to create a normalized
  P/E. Two methods for nomalizing EPS?
• The method of historical average EPS. Normal EPS
  is calculated as average EPS over the most recent
  full cycle.
• The method of average ROE. Normal EPS is
  calculated as the average return on equity from
  the most recent full cycle, multiplied by current
  book value per share.
• Which method is preferred?
• The first method is one of several possible
  statistical approaches to the problem of cyclical
  earnings. The method does not account for changes
  in the businesss size, however.
• The second alternative, by using recent book
  value per share, reflects more accurately the
  effect on EPS of growth or shrinkage in the
  companys size. For that reason, the method of
  average ROE is sometimes preferred.

16
Basic versus diluted EPS

• The analyst should consider the impact of
  potential dilution on earnings per share.
  Dilution refers to the reduction in the
  proportional ownership interests as a result of
  the issuance of new shares.
• Companies are required to present both basic
  earnings per share and diluted earnings per
  share.
• Basic earnings per share reflect total earnings
  divided by the weighted average number of shares
  actually outstanding during the period.
• Diluted earnings per share reflect division by
  the number of shares that would be outstanding if
  holders of securities such as executive stock
  options, equity warrants, and convertible bonds
  exercised their options to obtain common stock.

17
Negative earnings

• The security with the lowest positive value of a
  P/E has the lowest purchase cost per currency
  unit of earnings among the securities ranked.
  However, negative earnings result in a negative
  P/E. The negative P/E security will rank below
  the lowest positive value P/E security but,
  because earnings are negative, the negative P/E
  security is actually the most costly in terms of
  earnings purchased. Negative P/Es are not
  meaningful.
• In some cases, you might handle negative EPS by
  using normal EPS in its place. Also, when
  trailing EPS is negative, year-ahead EPS and so
  the leading P/E may be positive. However, in any
  case where the analyst is interested in a
  ranking, an available solution (applicable to any
  ratio involving a quantity that can be negative
  or zero) is to restate the ratio with price in
  the denominator, because price is never negative.
• The reciprocal of P/E is E/P, the earnings yield.
  Ranked by earnings yields from highest to lowest,
  the securities are correctly ranked from cheapest
  to most costly in terms of the amount of earnings
  one unit of currency buys.

18
Look-ahead bias

• Look-ahead bias sometimes exists with trialing
  P/Es
• Look-ahead bias is the use of information that is
  not contemporaneously available in computing a
  quantity.
• Stock selection disciplines involving P/Es, and
  other price multiples in general. Analysts may
  be using information that doesnt exist at the
  time they are making investment decisions.

19
Justified P/E in a DCF model

• DCF valuation models can be used to develop an
  estimate of the justified P/E for a stock.
• In the Gordon growth form of the dividend
  discount model, the P/E is calculated using these
  two expressions (from chapter 2)
• The leading P/E is
• The trailing P/E is
• Both expressions state P/E as a function of two
  fundamentals the stocks required rate of
  return, r, reflecting its risk, and the expected
  (stable) dividend growth rate, g. The dividend
  payout ratio, 1 b, also enters into the
  expression. The stocks justified P/E based on
  forecasted fundamentals.

20
Justified P/E example

• For FPL Group, Inc. (FPL), a utility analyst,
  forecasts a long-term payout rate of 50 percent,
  a long-term growth rate of 5 percent, and a
  required rate of return of 9 percent. Based upon
  these forecasts of fundamentals, what is FPLs
  justified leading P/E and trailing P/E?
• Leading justified P/E is
• Trailing justified P/E is

21
Benchmark P/Es

• The choices for the benchmark value of the P/E
  that have appeared in practice include
• The P/E of the most closely matched individual
  stock.
• The average or median value of the P/E for the
  companys peer group of companies within an
  industry.
• The average or median value of the P/E for the
  companys industry or sector.
• The P/E for a representative equity index
• An average past value of the P/E for the stock.
• Valuation errors are probably less likely when we
  use an equity index or a group of stocks than
  when we use a single stock, because the former
  choices involve an averaging.

22
PEG ratios

• One metric that appears to address the impact of
  earnings growth on P/E ratios is P/E to growth
  (PEG) ratio. The PEG ratio is calculated as the
  stocks P/E divided by the expected earnings
  growth rate. The ratio in effect calculates a
  stocks P/E per unit of expected growth. Stocks
  with lower PEGs are more attractive than stocks
  with higher PEGs, all else equal.
• The PEG ratio is useful, but must be used with
  care for several reasons
• The ratio assumes a linear relationship between
  P/E ratios and growth. The model for P/E in terms
  of DDM shows that in theory the relationship is
  not linear.
• The ratio does not factor in differences in risk,
  a very important component of P/E ratios.
• The ratio does not account for differences in the
  duration of growth. For example, dividing P/E
  ratios by short-term (5 year) growth forecasts
  may not capture differences in growth in
  long-term growth prospects.

23
P/E ratios based on regressions

• A justified P/E based on forecasted fundamentals
  can be derived from a cross-sectional regression
  of P/E on the fundamentals.
• Kisor and Whitbeck (1963) and Malkiel and Cragg
  (1970) pioneered this approach. The P/Es, and
  stock and company characteristics thought to
  determine P/E, are measured as of a given year
  for a group of stocks. The P/Es are regressed
  against the stock and company characteristics.
  The estimated equation shows the relationships in
  the data set between P/E and the characteristics
  for that group of stocks and for that time
  period.
• The Kisor and Whitbeck study included the
  historical growth rate in earnings, the dividend
  payout ratio, and the standard deviation of EPS
  changes as explanatory (independent) variables.
• Malkiel and Cragg (1970) introduced explanatory
  variables based on expectations (alongside
  regressions on historical values).
• The analyst can in fact conduct such
  cross-sectional regressions using any set of
  variables he or she believes are the determinants
  of investment value. Other DCF models besides the
  DDM can serve as the source of ideas for such
  variables

24
P/E ratios based on regressions

• A food company has a beta of 0.9, a dividend
  payout ratio of 0.45, and an earnings growth rate
  of 0.08. The estimated regression for a group of
  other stocks in the same industry is
• Predicted P/E 12.12 (2.25 ? DPR) (0.20 ?
  beta) (14.43 ?? EGR)
• Where DPR the dividend payout ratio, beta
  the stocks beta, and EGR the five-year
  earnings growth rate
• 1. What is the predicted P/E?
• 2. If the stocks actual trailing P/E is 18, is
  the stock fairly valued, overvalued, or
  undervalued?
• Solution to 1. Predicted P/E 12.12 (2.25 ?
  0.45) (0.20 ? 0.9) (14.43 ?? 0.08) 14.1.
  The predicted P/E is 14.1.
• Solution to 2. Because the predicted P/E of 14.1
  is less than the actual P/E of 18, the stock
  appears to be overvalued (selling at a higher
  multiple than is justified by its fundamentals).

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The Fed Model

• The Federal Reserve Board uses one such valuation
  model that relates the inverse of the SP 500
  P/E, the earnings yield, to the yield to maturity
  on 10-year Treasury Bonds. Earnings yield E/P,
  where the Fed uses expected earnings for the next
  12 months.
• The Feds model asserts that the market is
  overvalued when the stock markets current
  earnings yield is less than the 10-year Treasury
  bond yield. The intuition is that when Treasury
  bonds yield more than the earnings yield on the
  stock market, which is riskier than bonds, stocks
  are an unattractive investment.

26
The Yardeni Model

• Edward Yardeni has developed a model that
  incorporates the expected growth rate in
  earningsa variable that is missing in the Fed
  model. Yardenis model is
• CEY CBY b ? LTEG residual
• CEY is the current earnings yield on the market
  index, CBY is the current Moodys A-rated
  corporate bond yield and LTEG is the consensus
  five-year earnings growth rate forecast for the
  market index. The coefficient b measures the
  weight the market gives to five-year earnings
  projections (recall that the expression for P/E
  in terms of the Gordon growth model is based upon
  the long-term sustainable growth rate and that
  five-year forecasts of growth may not be
  sustainable). Note that while CBY incorporates a
  default risk premium relative to T-bonds, it does
  not incorporate an equity risk premium per se.
• Yardeni has found that the historical coefficient
  b has averaged 0.10. Noting that CEY is E/P and
  taking the inverse of both sides of this
  equation, Yardeni obtains the following
  expression for the justified P/E on the market

27
Price to Book Value approach

• In the P/E ratio, the measure of value, EPS, is a
  flow variable relating to the income statement.
  By contrast, the measure of value in the P/B
  ratio, book value per share, is a stock or level
  variable coming from the balance sheet.
• Intuitively, book value per share attempts to
  represent the investment that common shareholders
  have made in the company, on a per-share basis.

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Rationales for use of P/B ratio

• Because book value is a cumulative balance sheet
  amount, book value is generally positive even
  when EPS is negative. We can generally use P/B
  when EPS is negative, whereas P/E based on a
  negative EPS is not meaningful.
• Because book value per share is more stable than
  EPS, P/B may be more meaningful than P/E when EPS
  are abnormally high or low, or are highly
  variable.
• As a measure of net asset value per share, book
  value per share has been viewed as appropriate
  for valuing companies composed chiefly of liquid
  assets, such as finance, investment, insurance,
  and banking institutions. For such companies,
  book values of assets may approximate market
  values.
• Book value has also been used in valuation of
  companies that are not expected to continue as a
  going concern.
• Differences in P/B ratios may be related to
  differences in long-run average returns,
  according to empirical research.

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Possible drawbacks to P/B ratios

• Other assets besides those recognized in
  accounting may be critical operating factors. For
  example, in many service companies human is more
  important than physical capital as an operating
  factor.
• P/B can be misleading as a valuation indicator
  when there are significant differences among the
  level of assets employed by companies.
• Accounting effects on book value may compromise
  book value as a measure of shareholders
  investment in the company. As one example, book
  value can understate shareholders investment as
  a result of the expensing of investment in
  research and development (RD). Such expenditures
  often positively affect income over many periods
  and in principle create assets.
• In the accounting of most countries, including
  the United States, book value largely reflects
  the historical purchase costs of assets, as well
  as accumulated accounting depreciation expenses.
  Inflation as well as technological change
  eventually drive a wedge between the book value
  and the market value of assets. As a result, book
  value per share often poorly reflects the value
  of shareholders investments.

30
Computation of book value

• The computation of book value is as follows
• (Shareholders equity) minus (the total value of
  equity claims that are senior to common stock)
  Common shareholders equity
• (Common shareholders equity)/(number of common
  stock shares outstanding) book value per share
• Possible senior claims to common stock include
  the value of preferred stock and dividends in
  arrears on preferred stock.

31
Occasional adjustments to book value

• Tangible book value per share--subtracting
  reported intangible assets from the balance sheet
  from common shareholders equity. The analyst
  should be familiar with the calculation. However,
  from the viewpoint of financial theory, the
  general exclusion of intangibles is not
  warranted. As mentioned earlier, the
  non-inclusion in book value of any asset that may
  generate income can weaken book value as a
  reflection of actual value.
• To reflect current values, the balance sheet
  should be adjusted for significant off-balance
  sheet assets and liabilities and for differences
  in the fair value of these assets/liabilities
  from recorded accounting amounts.
  Internationally, accounting methods currently
  report some assets/liabilities at historical cost
  (with some adjustments) and others at fair value.
  For example, assets such as land or equipment
  are reported at their historical acquisitions
  cost, and in the case of equipment are being
  depreciated over their useful lives. These assets
  may have appreciated over time, or declined in
  value more than is reflected in the depreciation
  computation. Other assets such as investments in
  marketable securities are reported at fair market
  value. Reporting assets at fair value would make
  P/B more relevant for valuation (including
  comparisons across companies).
• Other adjustments for comparability--one company
  may be using FIFO and a peer company may be using
  LIFO, which in an inflationary environment will
  generally understate inventory values. To more
  accurately assess the relative valuation of the
  two companies, the analyst should restate the
  book value of the company using LIFO to what it
  would be on a FIFO basis.

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Justified P/B ratio

• We can use fundamental forecasts to estimate a
  stocks justified P/B ratio. For example,
  assuming the Gordon growth model and using the
  expression g b ? ROE for the sustainable growth
  rate, the expression for the justified P/B ratio
  based on the most recent book value (B0) is
• For example, if a businesss ROE is 12 percent,
  its required rate of return is 10 percent, and
  its expected growth rate is 7 percent, then its
  justified P/B based on fundamentals is (0.12 ?
  0.07)/(0.10 ? 0.07) 1.7.
• Further insight into the P/B ratio comes from the
  residual income model, which was mentioned in
  Chapter 2 and will discussed in detail in Chapter
  5. The expression for the justified P/B ratio
  based on the residual income valuation is

33
Rationales for Price/Sales ratios

• Sales are generally less subject to distortion or
  manipulation than other fundamentals such as EPS
  or book value. Through discretionary accounting
  decisions concerning expenses, for example,
  management can distort EPS as a reflection of
  economic performance. In contrast, total sales,
  as the top line in the income statement, is prior
  to any expenses.
• Sales are positive even when EPS is negative.
  Therefore, we can use P/S when EPS is negative,
  whereas P/E based on a negative EPS is not
  meaningful.
• Because sales are generally more stable than EPS,
  which reflects operating and financial leverage,
  P/S is generally more stable than P/E. P/S may be
  more meaningful than P/E when EPS is abnormally
  high or low.
• P/S has been viewed as appropriate for valuing
  the stock of mature, cyclical, and zero income
  companies.
• Differences in P/S ratios may be related to
  differences in long-run average returns,
  according to empirical research.

34
Drawbacks to P/S ratios

• A business may show high growth in sales,
  although the business is not operating profitably
  as judged by earnings and cash flow from
  operations. To have value as a going concern, a
  business must ultimately generate earnings and
  cash.
• The P/S ratio does not reflect differences in
  cost structures across companies.
• Although relatively robust with respect to
  manipulation, there is potential through revenue
  recognition practices to distort the P/S ratio.

35
Justified P/S ratio

• Like other multiples, the P/S multiple can be
  linked to DCF models. In terms of the Gordon
  growth model, we can state P/S as

36
Rationales for Price/Cash flow ratios

• Cash flow is less subject to manipulation by
  management than earnings. Cash flow from
  operations, precisely defined, can be manipulated
  only through real activities, such as the sale
  of receivables.
• Because cash flow is generally more stable than
  earnings, price-to-cash flow is generally more
  stable than P/E.
• Using price to cash flow rather than P/E
  addresses the issue of differences in accounting
  conservatism between companies (differences in
  the quality of earnings).
• Differences in price to cash flow may be related
  to differences in long-run average returns,
  according to empirical research.

37
Drawbacks to Price/Cash flow ratios

• When the EPS plus non-cash charges approximation
  to cash flow from operations is used, items
  affecting actual cash flow from operations such
  as non-cash revenue and net changes in working
  capital are ignored.
• Theory views free cash flow rather than cash flow
  as the appropriate variable for valuation. We can
  use P/FCFE ratios but FCFE has the possible
  drawback of being more volatile compared to CF
  for many businesses. FCFE is also more frequently
  negative than CF.

38
Four common cash flow measures

• In practice, analysts and vendors of data often
  use simple approximations to cash flow from
  operations in calculating cash flow in
  price-to-cash flow.
• A representative approximation specifies cash
  flow per share as EPS plus per-share
  depreciation, amortization, and depletion. We
  call this the earnings-plus-non-cash charges
  definition and use the symbol CF for it. We will
  also introduce more technically accurate cash
  flow concepts
• cash flow from operations (CFO)
• free cash flow to equity (FCFE), and
• EBITDA, an estimate of pre-interest, pre-tax
  operating cash flow.
• Most frequently, trailing price-to-cash flow
  ratios are reported. A trailing price-to-cash
  flow ratio is calculated as the current market
  price divided by the sum of the most recent four
  quarters cash flow per share. A fiscal year
  definition is also possible, just as in the case
  of EPS.

39
Enterprise value / EBITDA

• We dont like the P/EBITDA multiple, because
  EBITDA is a flow to both debt and equity. A
  multiple using total company value in the
  numerator was logically more appropriate.
• Enterprise value to EBITDA responds to this need.
  
• Enterprise value (EV) is total company value (the
  market value of debt, common equity, and
  preferred equity) minus the value of cash and
  investments.
• Because the numerator is enterprise value,
  EV/EBITDA is a valuation indicator for the
  overall company rather than common stock. If the
  analyst can assume that the businesss debt and
  preferred stock (if any) are efficiently priced,
  the analyst can also draw an inference about the
  valuation of common equity.

40
Rationales for EV / EBITDA

• EV/EBITDA may be more appropriate than P/E for
  comparing companies with different financial
  leverage (debt), because EBITDA is a pre-interest
  earnings figure, in contrast to EPS, which is
  post-interest.
• By adding back depreciation and amortization,
  EBITDA controls for differences in depreciation
  and amortization across businesses. For this
  reason, EV/EBITDA is frequently used in the
  valuation of capital-intensive businesses (for
  example, cable companies and steel companies).
• EBITDA is frequently positive when EPS is
  negative.

41
Possible drawbacks to EV / EBITDA

• EBITDA will overestimate cash flow from
  operations if working capital is growing. EBITDA
  also ignores the effects of differences in
  revenue recognition policy on cash flow from
  operations.
• Free cash flow to the firm, which directly
  reflects the amount of required capital
  expenditures, has a stronger link to valuation
  theory than EBITDA. Only if depreciation expenses
  match capital expenditures do we expect EBITDA to
  reflect differences in businesses capital
  programs. This can be meaningful for the
  capital-intensive businesses to which this
  multiple is often applied.

42
Rationales and drawbacks of dividend yield

• Rationales
• Dividend yield is a component of total return.
• Dividends are a less risky component of total
  return than capital appreciation.
• Drawbacks
• Dividend yield is just one component of total
  return not to use all information related to
  expected return is not optimal.
• Dividends paid now displace earnings in all
  future periods (a concept known as the dividend
  displacement of earnings). Investors trade off
  future earnings growth to receive higher current
  dividends.
• The argument about the relative safety of
  dividends presupposes that the market prices
  reflect in a biased way differences in the
  relative risk of the components of return.

43
Justified dividend yields

• For practical purposes, dividend yield, D/P is
  preferred over P/D. (zero dividends are a
  problem)
• Trailing dividend yield is generally calculated
  as four times the most recent quarterly per-share
  dividend divided by the current market price per
  share. (The most recent quarterly dividend times
  four is known as the dividend rate.)
• The leading dividend yield is calculated as
  forecasted dividends per share over the next year
  divided by the current market price per share.
• The justified dividend yield in a Gordon model
  is

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International differences

• Comparing companies across borders frequently
  involves accounting method differences, cultural
  differences, economic differences, and resulting
  differences in risk and growth opportunities.
• For example, P/E ratios for individual companies
  in the same industry across borders have been
  found to vary widely.

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Unexpected earnings (earnings surprise)

• Momentum indicators based on price, such as the
  relative strength indicator discussed below, have
  also been referred to as technical indicators.
• Unexpected earnings (also called earnings
  surprise) iss the difference between reported
  earnings and expected earnings
• UEt EPSt E(EPSt)
• where UEt is the unexpected earnings per share
  for quarter t, EPSt is the reported earnings per
  share for quarter t, and E(EPSt) is the expected
  earnings per share for the quarter.
• For example, a stock with reported quarterly
  earnings of 1.05 and expected earnings of 1.00
  would have a positive earnings surprise of 0.05.

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Standardized unexpected earnings

• The same rationale lies behind standardized
  unexpected earnings (SUE). SUE is defined as
• where the numerator is the unexpected earnings
  for t and the denominator, sEPSt E(EPSt), is
  the standard deviation of past unexpected
  earnings over some period prior to time t, for
  example the 20 quarters prior to t as in Latané
  and Jones (1979), the article that introduced the
  SUE concept.

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Relative strength (momentum)

• Relative strength (RSTR) indicators compare a
  stocks performance during a period either to its
  own past performance or to the performance of
  some group of stocks. The simplest relative
  strength indicator of the first type is the
  stocks compound rate of return over some
  specified time, such as six months or one year.
• Other definitions relate a stocks return over a
  recent period to its return over a longer period
  that includes the more recent period.
• A simple relative strength indicator of the
  second type is the stocks performance divided by
  the performance of an equity index. If the value
  of this ratio is increasing, the stock price is
  increasing relative to the index and is
  displaying positive relative strength. Often the
  relative strength indicator may be scaled to 1.0
  at the beginning of the study period. If the
  stock and the index go up at a higher (lower)
  rate, for example, then relative strength will be
  above (below) 1.0. Relative strength in this
  sense is often calculated for industries as well
  as individual stocks.