Communication Effectiveness

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Communication Effectiveness
John Daly University of Texas (512)
471-1948 daly_at_mail.utexas.edu
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People Quickly Forget Information They Are
Exposed To
Spitzer, 1939
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
I. Organize Your Message for Impact

• A. Know your goal and purpose
• B. Drop what is unimportant
• C. Chunk what remains
• D. Structure your information for memorability
• - Primacy/recency
• - When each works

Primacy Effect
Recency Effect
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
II. Be Redundant
A. Defining redundancy - repetition is not
redundancy C. Redundancy makes you more
interesting B. Redundancy improves
memorability - always offer two examples of a
concept - beware of seductive details -
offer concrete and visual concepts - follow the
tell-show-do-respond method
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
Retention is Improved with Redundancy - Tell
Explain the concept - Show Demonstrate it (or
show how to apply) - Do Learner applies the
concept - Respond Reinforce/Redirect The
shorter the links in the learning chain, the
stronger the chain. Teach new concepts in small
chunks so very little time elapses between each
link in the chain. Not T--------------gtS------
--------gtD---------------gtR But
T----gtS----gtD----gtR----gtT----gtS----gtD----gtR
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Address the different preferences people have for
information
Auditory resonate, speechless, discuss, On
the same wavelength, Loud and clear, Rings a
bell.
Visual focus, reveal, clarify,
illustrate, It appears to me, We see eye to
eye, The future looks bright, The solution
flashed before my eye.
Common modalities
Kinesthetic touch, tangible, hold,
solid, Scratch the surface, Firm
foundation, and Heated argument.
Also olfactory and gustatory
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• Picture this
• Focus on
• This resonates with me
• Im speechless
• Do you grasp this?
• Well scrape up the money
• Let me clarify this
• Listen to this
• Can you handle this?
• Im a little hazy about this
• Lets discuss this
• Lets tackle the problem

• I see what you mean
• Its music to my ears
• I felt it in my bones
• It appears to me
• Loud and clear
• Hold on for a minute
• Show me what you mean
• I hear you
• Firm foundation
• My view is
• Tell me again
• Scratch the surface

From OConnor Seymour, 1995
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Graphical Displays of Information Add
Communicative Value
Redundancies Provide an additional media---two
codes are better than one Motivational Attract
attention and maintain motivation Efficiencies
Show things quickly that would take a long time
to describe (e.g., maps, faces,
systems) Organizational Organize information in
ways that show relationships Memorability Visual
memory Historical Bias We have used pictures a
lot longer than words Cross-cultural consistency
people across cultures can understand a picture
Tversky, et al. (2002), Intern J. Human-Computer
Studies
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Some Principles of Graphical Communication
Congruency principle the structure and content
of an external representation should correspond
to the desired structure and content of the
internal representation. People naturally using
upward slope to show increasing rate. Routes are
conceived of by people as a series of turnsthus
a graphic would represent a route using turns.
Green means go red means stop Apprehension
principle The structure and content of the
external representation should be readily and
accurately perceived and comprehended. People do
not make fine distinctions in angles. Thus,
angles shown in graphics ought to be rough
estimates Relevancy principle Whatever is
displayed must be directly relevant to the point
being communicated. One does not need to include
all information. Eliminate distractions Beware of
seductive details Limit information
Tversky, et al. (2002), Intern J. Human-Computer
Studies
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Some Principles of Graphical Communication
Multimedia principle People learn better from
words and pictures than from words alone. People
process information using different
channels Spatial congruity principle People
learn better when corresponding words and
pictures are presented near rather than far from
each other. The less people have to search the
easier it is for them to comprehend Temporal
congruity principle People learn better when
corresponding words and pictures are presented
simultaneously rather than successively. Modality
principle People learn better when words in a
multimedia messae are presented as spoken text
rather than written text Dont overload
any one channel Individual difference principle.
People who have little knowledge of the topic are
affected more by design issues than people with
deep knowledge
Richard Meyer, Multimedia Leraning
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
III. Focus on Your Listeners Schema
A. A schema is a category system people have
for organizing information
B. Schemas help people remember information
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The Elevator Problem
The manager of a large office building has been
receiving an increasing number of complaints
about the buildings elevator service,
particularly during rush hours. Several of the
long term tenants in the building have threatened
to move out unless the service is improved. In
response, the manager recently inquired into the
possibility of adding one or two elevators to the
building. Although it would be feasible, the only
elevator company in the area has a six month
backlog of orders. As an assistant to the
manager, you were asked to come up with a plan to
get two new elevators installed within three
months. You must present the plan at the next
staff meeting. Please circle one problem
statement 1. To get two elevators within three
months 5. To keep upset tenants from moving
2. To improve elevator service in the
building 6. To keep the offices fully rented 3.
To get more people out of the building faster 7.
To keep the manager happy with me 4. To keep the
tenants in the building happy 8. To keep my
job List several possible solutions for the
problem statement youve chosen 1.________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
___________________________________ 2.____________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
______________________________________ this
exercise was devised by CRA
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Recently, the Federal government mandated that
every car contain air bags for the driver and
front seat passenger. After their introduction, a
number of small children, and some adults of
small stature, have been killed when the bags
opened (even after a crash at very slow speeds).
What might be the problem statements one could
develop for this?
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Recently, the Federal government mandated that
every car contain air bags for the driver and
front seat passenger. After their introduction, a
number of small children, and some adults of
small stature, have been killed when the bags
opened (even after a crash at very slow speeds).
What might be the problem statements one could
develop for this?
From David J. Houston Lilliard E. Richardson,
The Politics of Air Bag Safety A Competition
among Problem Definitions
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You are competing with others to have your
definition of the condition frame the discussion

• A successful problem statement should
• Be Plausible (e.g., good evidence)
• Have an Effective Advocate-Entrepreneur (e.g.,
  political power willingness credible
  articulate)
• Have Consensus Among Proponents
• Imply a Feasible Solution (e.g., affordable)
• Comprehensive (integrates all of the major
  issues)
• Compatible with other problem statements
• Have symbolic power (e.g., memorable images)

From David J. Houston Lilliard E. Richardson,
The Politics of Air Bag Safety A Competition
among Problem Definitions
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
III. Focus on Your Listeners Schema, (contd.)
C. Schemas aid people in understanding
- The problem statement you choose
shapes the solutions you generate - always
make sure there is agreement about what
the problem is - when no solution seems to
work, change the statement of the
problem
fight to define the problem--whoever wins the
problem, determines the solutions
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
III. Focus on Your Listeners Schema, (contd.)
D. Schemas can explain why people often
misunderstand what we are saying
- Listeners assume you are talking about
one category and you are talking about
another - Listeners fill in the
blanksthey assume everything goes
into a category even if you didnt
mention
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
III. Focus on Your Listeners Schema, (contd.)
E. Use schemas to enhance your effectiveness
1. You can adapt your message to your
listeners schema 2. You can create a new
schema for your listener
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Building Advocacy Skills
Create Demand
You always have a choice push vs. pull push
you convince them they need it pull they
believe they need it so they seek it out
What do the booksellers of the 1920s, the grocery
business of the 1930s and Arm Hammer baking
soda have in common?
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
IV. Meanings are in people, not in words
or behavior
A. Words dont mean, people do -
Cross-cultural misunderstandings happen
because people assume words have meaning
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages

• The Dairy Associations huge success with the
  campaign Got Milk? prompted them to expand
  advertising into Mexico. It was soon brought to
  their attention the Spanish translation read Are
  you lactating?
• Coors put its slogan Turn it loose into
  Spanish, where it was read as Suffer from
  diarrhea.
• Scandinavian vacuum manufacturer Electrolux used
  the following in an American campaign Nothing
  sucks like an Electrolux.
• Pepsis Come alive with the Pepsi generation
  translated into Pepsi brings your ancestors back
  from the grave, in Chinese.
• Frank Perdues chicken slogan, It takes a strong
  man to make a tender chicken was translated into
  Spanish as It takes an aroused man to make a
  chicken affectionate.

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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
Even within a culture misunderstandings arise
because people assume words have meaning
- Mrs. Jones is an older woman. How old is
she? - Jack smokes too many cigarettes. How many
does he smoke each day? - Court collects
records. How many records does he have? - Mary
makes a lot of money each month. How much does
she make?
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THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IS HARD TO GRASPThe
bandage was wound around the wound. The farm was
used to produce produce. The dump was so full
that it had to refuse more refuse. He could lead
if he would get the lead out. The soldier
decided to desert his dessert in the desert.
Since there is no time like the present, he
thought it was time to present the present. I
did not object to the object. There was a row
among the oarsmen about how to row. They were
too close to the door to close it. A seamstress
and a sewer fell down into a sewer line. The
wind was too strong to wind the sail. Upon
seeing the tear in the painting I shed a tear. I
had to subject the subject to a series of tests.
How can I intimate this to my most intimate
friend?
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
IV. Meanings are in people, not in words
or behavior, (contd.)
What shapes meaning?
- need for inclusion - need for
control - need for affection - need for
efficacy When a need isnt met, everything you
say gets interpreted in terms of that unmet need
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Maslows Hierarchy
Self Actualize
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
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Marketing Strategies Based on Maslows Needs
Theory
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
Products
Vitamins, herbal supplements, medicines, low-fat
foods, exercise equipment, fitness clubs
Marketing approaches Products
Quaker Oatmeal--Oh, what those oats can
do! AvlimalReclaim your sensuality. Kaiser-Per
manente--More people turn to us for good
health. CargillNourishing ideas, nourishing
people. Advil--Advanced medicine for pain.
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Marketing Strategies Based on Maslows Needs
Theory
SAFETY NEEDS
Products
Car accessories, burglar alarm systems,
retirement investments, insurance, smoke and
carbon monoxide detectors
Marketing approaches Products
Allstate Insurance--Youre in good hands with
Allstate. Ford Motor Company--Only your mother
is more obsessed with your safety. Lysol Basin
Tub Tile Cleaner--This is no place for
germs. Merrill Lynch--A tradition of trust.
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Marketing Strategies Based on Maslows Needs
Theory
BELONGINGNESS NEEDS
Products
Beauty aids, entertainment, clothing
Marketing approaches Products
Carnival Cruise Lines--The most popular cruise
line in the world. Pepsi--Join the Pepsi
Generation. Dr. PepperIm a Pepper, hes a
Pepper,wouldnt you Lady Foot Locker--One
store. Every woman.
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Marketing Strategies Based on Maslows Needs
Theory
ESTEEM NEEDS
Products
Clothing, cars, jewelry, liquors, hobbies, beauty
spa services
Marketing approaches Products
Jeep--Theres only one. Movado Museum
Watch--The making of a legendary
classic. Bombay Sapphire Dry Gin--Pour
something priceless. BMW--The ultimate driving
machine.
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Marketing Strategies Based on Maslows Needs
Theory
SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEEDS
Products
Education, cultural events, sports, hobbies
Marketing approaches Products
Nike--Just do it. Outward Bound Schools--The
adventure lasts a lifetime. ArmyBe all that
you can be! LexusThe passionate pursuit of
perfection.
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
V. Be strategic in communicating your messages
A. People prefer face-to-face communication -
and when possible, do it one-to-one sell ideas
retail B. People prefer hearing messages from
people they trust and respect - losing
trust is not recoverable - the Pelz effect
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Trust matters

• Trust is related to
• organizational citizenship
• the amount of effort people expend on a team
  task
• the amount of conflict
• the amount and clarity of communication people
  have
• the degree to which people engage in effective
  decision-making

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Creating and Maintaining Trust
Reliability (consistency)
Honesty (keep promises)
Faith (Good will)
Trust
Vulnerability (Open)
Engaging in behaviors desired by other but not by
self
Competency (Knows)
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
Why trust matters
Interpreting Details
High Need for Information
Substantial Change
Sense-making
Limited Unambiguous Information Available
Using Informal Channels
Assigning Motives
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
V. Be strategic in communicating your
messages, (contd.)
C. People want timely messages
D. People want relevant messages E. People want
honest messages, even when there are no
guarantees F. People want consistent messages
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Managing Rumors
Anxiety
x
Ambiguity
x
Information Importance
There is a multiplicative relationship among the
four. Control one and rumors dissipate
x
Credibility Of Sources

Rumors
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
Be Strategic in Communicating Your Messages
What are the best practices?
- Communication is seen as a vital management
process - Employees, at all levels, are treated
as customers of communication - Managers are held
accountable for communication - Corporate
strategy and communication strategy are
integrated - Managers coordinate with other
managers messages must be the same - Let them
know what is happening Big picture and small
picture are equally important - Symbols are valued
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
Be Strategic in Communicating Your Messages
G. Strategic Communication What
communicates?
- decisions - rewards and recognition -
informal networks - formal messages
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
V. Be strategic in communicating your
messages, (contd.)
Choosing media
Media richness theory - Use more channels
when the message is (a) important, (b)
complex, and (c) ambiguous - Use more personal
channels when (a) feedback is critical and
(b) you want attention
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
V. Be strategic in communicating your
messages (contd.)
Face to Face
More Cues More Urgent More Timely Feedback
More Tailored Messages
Videoconference
Telephone
E-Forums
Greater Certainty Less Complexity Routine
Messages
E-Mail
Letter
Flyer/Magazine
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
V. Ask questions

• A. The way you ask questions matters
• - closed versus open questions

Closed questions restrict the sorts of answers a
person offers to a narrow range of
responses. Are you over 30 years of age? Did
you go to the meeting? Have you had training in
Y?
Open questions are broad allowing respondents
freedom about how much and what information to
offer. Tell me about yourself? What happened
at the meeting? What do you know about process
Y?
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Types of Questions
Thought Provoking
Typical Response
Questioner Control
Time
Closed
Yes/No
High
Low
Low
Content
Facts
Explanations, hypotheses, and underlying issues
Open
Low
High
High
Richness of Response
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
Is everything working?
Do you understand?
Creativity is the top criteria for deciding,
isnt it?
Open questions lead to iceberg statements
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
B. Probe! - silence, nudging, follow-up
questions, mirror probes
C. Seek advice D. Listen for the answer E.
Avoid taking a position too soon
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The Self Fulfilling Prophecy
2. You give the other non-critical, routine tasks

1. Your confidence in the other is low
3b. You interact minimally with the other (and
micro-manage)
6. You feel your initial perception was correct
3a. The other feels unchallenged and bored
5. The others contributions and impact is low
4. The other loses interest in the task and
becomes unmotivated
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Questions that work
What do you think would happen if? What is
most important to you about? If you could
change one thing about.? How would you
improve? How will you do that? What plans
have you made to handle that? How will your
toughest competitor react when you do.? What
else? What keeps you awake at nighttime
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
Use empowering questions Focus on Rather
than Results (e.g., What can we do to on
time) Reasons (e.g. Why are we late?) Solutions
and opportunities Problems and threats What we
want What we dont want What we can do Who
is to blame What is working What is not
working Try these 1. Whats your problem with
the assignment?___________________________ 2.
What must we do to avoid losing market
share?_______________________ 3. What are we
doing to hurt our reputation with our
customer?____________
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SPIN Questioning
Statements of difficulties, problems, or
dissatisfaction
Situation Questions
To establish a context
So decision-maker reveals
Problem Questions
Implied Need
Leading to
Which are developed by
Which makes the decision-maker feel the problem
more clearly and acutely
Implication Questions
So decision-maker says
Need-Payoff Questions
Explicit Need
Leading to
Allowing the decision-maker to state
Statements of wants and desires
Benefit
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Situation Questions

• Questions about the decision-makers present way
  of operating (or facts about their existing
  situation)
• Example (Potential problem--insufficient
  warehouse storage capacityadvocates goal---sell
  the idea of getting more warehouse space )
• How many different kinds of goods are stored?
• What kind of storage retrieval system is now
  used?
• Whats the average retrieval time?
• How many items are retrieved in a typical day?

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• What is the current situation?
• Discover current business, operation, processes,
  etc.
• Understand their level of satisfaction for what
  is working
• Discover what needs to be changed to identify
  current gaps and concerns
• Get numbers, facts, organizational structure

• What is their current strategy/future needs?
• Identify their goals, plans, and business drivers
  looking-forward

• What are the their personal needs and
  relationships
• Identify their non-work interests, points of view
• Determine their feeling and knowledge about you
  ( what you are associated with)
• Discover how they like to sold

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• Other questions?
• Their decision making process, compelling events,
  timeframes
• Who makes the decision who influences the
  decision makers What is the decision-making
  process?
• Selection criteria
• Political issues (who supports/opposes?)
• What client thinks of competition
• Level of access competitors have to client
• What resources have been allocated

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Situation Questions

• Idea _________ Decision-Maker _________
• Potential problem (that you could solve)
• Situation questions to ask

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Problem Questions

• Asks about the problems, difficulties, or
  dissatisfactions that decision-makers have with
  their existing situation Problem questions
  invite the customer to explore dissatisfaction
  and get the customer to state implied needs
  (Implied needs are statements by the customer of
  problems, difficulties, and dissatisfactions.
  Example our system cant cope with the
  throughput we have too much wastage)
• Examples
• How satisfied are you with your present system?
• What prevents you from achieving that objective?
• What problems are you experiencing in this area?
• What makes this operation difficult?
• Which parts of the system create errors?

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Problem Questions

• Idea _________ Decision-Maker _________
• Potential problem areas (problems that might
  exist and that we can solve)
• Problem questions to ask

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Implication Questions

• Questions about the effects or consequences of a
  decision-makers problems, difficulties, or
  dissatisfactions. Implication questions induce
  pain (and make decision-maker anxious for a
  solution)
• Examples
• What effect do these problems have on your
  competitive position?
• Could that lead to an increase in cost?
• How will this problem affect productivity?
• Has the shortage of staff impacted customer
  service?

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Implication Questions

• Your friend John is a consultant who commutes in
  his 10 year old car from his home to his office,
  about 15 miles away. He travels frequently,
  using an airport 20 miles away, where he leaves
  the car in the long-term parking area.
• When hes not traveling, John often picks up
  out-of-town clients who are in town for meetings,
  shows them the local sights in the evening, or
  drives to other clients meetings in the city or
  suburbs
• His wife has her own car, but has had to shuttle
  him to or from the repair shop on occasion and
  then to or from his office. That has caused them
  both to have to go to work late or leave early
• Youre in Johns backyard on Saturday afternoon,
  when he mentions that hes wondering what to do
  about his old car. Hes worried because the car
  has been in the repair shop twice lately.
• Your task develop the urgency of the problem by
  pointing out possible implications

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Implication Questions in SPIN Selling
Im getting old
Implication
Implication
Implication
Implication
Implication
Implication
Implication
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Implication Questions
Im getting old
Does that create?
Does that lead to?
Has that caused?
What effect does that have on?
Unreliability
Inconvenience
Missed Meetings
Poor Image
Has that caused?
Does that result in?
Did that mean?
More Repairs
Extra Costs
Lost Business
Has that meant?
Implication questions develop something into a
bigger problem
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• Implication Questions are the most powerful of
  all questions
• They help decision-makers see that the problem is
  serious enough to justify the hassle and cost of
  a solution.
• They induce pain.
• They build the consequences of the
  decision-makers problems
• Make the decision-maker more anxious for a
  solution that will take the pain away
• Hold back from early answers and instead ask
  implication questions. Skillfully build the
  pain. Create a stronger need before introducing
  solutions.

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Implication Questions

• Idea _________ Decision-Maker _________
• Decision-Makers Problem (that we can solve)
• Implications (that make the problem more urgent)

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Need-Payoff Questions

• Questions about the value, importance, or
  usefulness of a solution
• Examples
• How much would you save if we speed the process
  by 20?
• How important is it to double the response time?
• Could the new system also help you maintain
  better stock control?
• Would it help if I could should you a way to
  overcome the contamination problem?

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Need questions focus on solutions. Get the
decision-maker to tell you about the benefits
your solution offers, rather than forcing you to
explain the benefits to them. (So instead of
saying our faster system will help you by
reducing the present production bottleneck, you
might ask the need-payoff question, how would
our faster system help you.) Need-payoff
questions are often the mirror image of
implication questions.(So, for example, a
decision-maker might have a problem that the
present system is unreliable. One way to explore
the problem might be to ask an implication
question such as could that unreliability create
waste that adds to your costs? The same idea
could equally well be explored using a
need-payoff question like, if you had better
reliability, wouldnt that cut waste and reduce
costs?)
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Need-Payoff Questions

• Potential payoff of your solution Decrease
  staffing costs by 20, while improving response
  time and equipment quality
• Need-payoff questions
• If you could reduce your annual staffing costs by
  20, would it make you more competitive?
• How would your other management responsibilities
  benefit if you didnt have to spend time dealing
  with staffing problems?
• Are response time and equipment quality equally
  important to you?

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Need-Payoff Questions

• Idea _________ Decision-Maker _________
• Your potential payoff
• Your need-payoff questions

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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
Listening
A. Listen so as to tell someone else what
you heard B. Plan to listen C.
Eliminate distractions D. Use internal
summaries E. Limit counter-arguing
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Enhancing the Clarity of Your Messages
Listening
F. Take some notes
G. Listen for what isnt said H. Listen
for the relational messages I. Find
applications J. Engage in active listening